MESSAGES AND THE ENTIRE HISTORY OF GREECE WITH RADIALIST ROBERTO BARROS

Here I want to show an unprecedented narration as a full message that defines itself about a great and fabulous story in which I show about the ancient city called Greece that I tell about beautiful and unforgettable international romantic songs for everyone to listen with immense love to understand and feel deeply about beautiful knowledge that mixes with the true dynamics that we can remember several ancient events that can tell us and show us great stories that marked a great era of dreams where fantasy can be the best companion of a great adventurous dream that we seek in your past or in the future a deep relationship and reaction with the most codifying nature that lacks pleasure and love for our world and that makes us seek among many trajectories and achievements a valuable role in getting to know much better and with divine love the very life in which we live here in simple words that we can simply be well connected about our desires to be happy, knowledge from our ancestor's life, recognition with our own Self that we dedicate

ourselves to the mere pleasure of getting to know life and our world much better through the best way to live and be happy where here now with much love, dedication to all my formidable listeners, I want to say that we satisfactorily admit by a simple notion and desire about life that life is perhaps a fleeting thing and that we are duly delving deeper into a space that I simply believe that we will still meet as we have a lot to know and tell beautiful and extraordinary stories that simply reveal to us a very remote era of our time and that we are synchronized with the era of young people who have always believed in the past as an answer to the true future and that we can fully know it as closely as we have to take them as a friend of a simple adventurous notion that in everything and through everything passes through us and that will always be kept as a memory and souvenir of a great time that here now let's remember with beautiful love songs about a romantic moment of pleasure where the radio waves synchronize us with power and that we can dream much better about the future in which here I will tell a beautiful story for everyone to hear in which here I leave my best hug as writer and radio host Roberto Barros. Hugs!

With simple pleasure, I want to go back in time to show a story that we can really understand how it all began in ancient Greece with its Olympic games, culture, art and religion to simplify and have an idea about a beautiful place of beautiful historical buildings that reigned many gods and that history can tell us how long we have to understand their value that is more attached to our natures and that culture begins in art moving on to a more divine field in which man follows certain commandments of great gods until the days in which we can decipher a good narration of old writings by certain men who remained in the history of humanity until today and we will have to go back in time and see how it all began and know how to

understand the true cause of living and conquering life and let's talk a little about your culture and have a good lesson.

Culture in Greece:

The Parthenon is an enduring symbol of ancient Greece and Athenian democracy

The culture of Greece evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing primarily into classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its eastern Greek continuation, the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire). Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire, also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalizing an entity unique and cohesive of its multifaceted culture.

In ancient times, Greece was the cradle of Western culture. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality before the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered many fields that rely on systematic thinking, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, physics, and mathematics. They introduced important literary forms such as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy and comedy. In the search for order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.

Art and architecture

Laocoon and his sons, Hellenistic period

Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric Cycladic and Minoan civilizations, both influenced by local traditions and the art of Ancient Egypt. Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the

preferred medium for large works in the early 5th century. Marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable. Lephantine crisis sculptures, used for temple cult images and works of luxury, used gold, most often in leaf form, and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were very less common and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek archaeological sites had produced a multitude of sculptures with strikingly multicolored surface traces. It was not until published discoveries by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.

The art and architecture of Greek societies existed from the beginning of the Iron Age (11th century BC) to the end of the 1st century BC. Before that (Bronze Age), the Greek art of the mainland and islands (except Crete, where there was a different tradition called Minoan art) is known as Mycenaean art, and later Greek art, called Hellenistic, is considered integral to the culture of the Roman Empire (Roman art). The Greeks, initially a group of relatively autonomous tribes that had common cultural factors, such as language and religion, settled in the Peloponnese at the beginning of the first millennium BC, starting one of the most influential cultures of Antiquity. After the orientalizing phase (between the 11th century BC and 650 BC), whose artistic manifestations were inspired by Mesopotamian culture, Greek art experienced a first moment of maturity during the archaic period, which lasted until 475 BC Marked by geographic expansion, the economic development and the increase in international relations, at this time we saw the definition of the aesthetic and formal foundations that would characterize later Greek artistic productions.

After Greek independence, modern Greek architects attempted to combine traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motifs with

Western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city in the modern Greek state to develop a city plan. In January 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer in the French army, presented the plan for the new city to governor Ioánnis Kapodístrias, who approved it. Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule to the urban complex of Patras.

theater

The ancient theater of Epidaurus is still used today for Greek drama shows

Theater in its Western form was born in Greece. The city-state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its center, where it was institutionalized as part of a festival called Dionysia, which honored the god Dionysus. Tragedy (end of the 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC) and satire were the three dramatic genres that emerged there. During the Byzantine period, theatrical art was heavily oppressed. According to Marios Ploritis, the only surviving form was folk theater (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official State.

Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The revival that led to modern Greek theater took place in Venetian Crete. Significant playwrights include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatsis. Modern Greek theater was born after Greece's independence in the early 19th century and was initially influenced by Heptanean theater and melodrama, such as Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro of San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theater and opera house in modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas's Parliamentary Candidate (based on a uniquely Greek libretto), was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Athenian theater scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes,

and notable playwrights, including Spyridon Samaras and others. The National Theater of Greece opened in 1900 as the Royal Theater.

Literature

Bust of Homer

Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: ancient, Byzantine, and modern Greek literature. Athens is considered the cradle of Western literature. At the beginning of Greek literature are Homer's two monumental works: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Although dates of composition vary, these works were created around 800 BC or later. In the classical period, many of the genres of Western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic performances of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics and philosophical treatises emerged in this period. The two main lyric poets were Sappho and Pindar. The classical era also saw the beginning of the drama genre. Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical era, only a limited number of plays by three authors survive: those by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays of Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians of this period. The greatest prose achievement of the fourth century was in philosophy, with the works of the three great philosophers.

Byzantine literature refers to the literature of the Byzantine Empire, written in Attic, medieval, and modern Greek, and is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and modern Greek literature began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.

Konstantinos Kaváfis, whose work was mainly inspired by the Hellenistic past, while Odysseas Elytis (center) and Giórgos Seféris

(right) were representatives of the 1930s generation and winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem, Erotokritos, is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature. It is a verse novel written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553-1613). Later, during the period of Greek Enlightenment (Diafotism), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared the Greek Revolution (1821-1830) with their works.

Major figures in modern Greek literature include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Demetrius Vikelas, Kostis Palamas, Penélope Delta, Yiannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Níkos Kavvadías, Andreas Embirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Konstantinos Kaváfis, Kostas Kariotakis and Kiki Dimoula. Two Greek authors received the Nobel Prize for Literature: Giórgos Seféris in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.

Philosophy

Most Western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The earliest philosophers are called "presocratic", meaning they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in Western thought. The Pre-Socratics were from the western or eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their original writings survive, in some cases just one sentence. A new period of philosophy began with Socrates. Like the Sophists, he entirely rejected the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of the people his starting point. Aspects of Socrates were first united by Plato, who also combined them with many of the principles established by previous philosophers, and developed all this material

into the unity of a comprehensive system. Aristotle, Plato's most important disciple, shared with his teacher the title of greatest philosopher of antiquity. Plato's student preferred to start from facts given by experience. Except for these three most important Greek philosophers, other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism.

Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterized by a Christian worldview, but which could extract ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle and Neoplatonists. On the eve of the fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho attempted to restore the use of the term "Hellenic" and advocated a return to the Olympian gods of the ancient world. After 1453, several Byzantine Greek scholars who fled to Western Europe contributed to the Renaissance. In the modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment", "enlightenment") was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis. Other early modern Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas, and Christos Yannaras.

Cooking

Feta cheese with olives, typical mezes of Greek cuisine

Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy Mediterranean diet, which is epitomized by Cretan dishes. Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be found in ancient Greece, such as skordalia (a thick puree of walnuts, almonds, garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina

(white or rose wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (roasted sesame chocolate bar ) with honey). Throughout Greece, people often enjoy eating small dishes such as meze with various sauces such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, raisins and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various types of legumes, olives and cheeses. Olive oil is added to almost all dishes.

Some sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the continent and from island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano leaves, mint, garlic, onion, dill, and bay leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme, and fennel seeds. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.

sports

The Olympic Flame during the opening ceremony of the 2004 Olympics at the Olympic Stadium in Athens

Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC at Olympia, and has hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. parade of nations, Greece is always named first, as the founding nation of the modern Olympics. The nation has competed in every Summer Olympics, one of only four countries to do so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd for gold medals in the all-time Olympic medal count. The best performance of all time was at the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.

The Greek national football team, ranked 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011), was crowned European champions at Euro 2004. The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league of the country, made up of sixteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos and AEK Athens. The Greek National Basketball Team has a decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered one of the main basketball powers in the world; in 2012, it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe. They won the European championship twice in 1987 and 2005.

Ancient Olympic Games

The Ancient Olympic Games were a religious and athletic festival in Ancient Greece, which took place every four years in the sanctuary of Olympia, in honor of Zeus. The traditional date assigned to the first edition of the Olympic Games is 776 BC

The Olympic Games were the most important Pan-Hellenic Games, having been banned by the Christian emperor Theodosius I in 393, as they were a manifestation of pagan rituals. An important source on the games is Pausanias (2nd century AD), author of the book Description of Greece, a guide to Greece based on his travels through the territory. Another important source is a treatise on gymnastics by Philostratus of Lemnos (2nd-3rd century AD).

Greek sculpture and ceramics represented not only athletes but the practice of sports itself. With regard to sculpture, which had bronze and marble as its favorite materials, many works survived only as copies from the Roman era. Only the base remains of some statues, where inscriptions relating to the athlete are engraved,

providing information. Finally, the coins minted in certain cities depict a specific sport in which the city stood out.

Origins

Artistic representation of ancient Olympia

According to antiquity scholars from Elis, from the time of Pausanias, the temple of Olympia was built by men from the region at the time when Cronos was the king of the Titans, the so-called Golden Age. When Rhea left Zeus in the care of Ida's dactyls, or curettes, Heracles of Ida, the eldest, defeated his brothers in a race, and was crowned with an olive branch. From then on, the games began to be celebrated every fifth year, as there were five brothers (Héracles, Peoneus, Epimedes, Iáusius and Idas).

According to some versions, Zeus defeated Cronos at Olympia, but other versions say that he held games there to celebrate his victory. The champion of victories among the gods was Apollo, who beat Hermes in running and Ares in boxing; For this reason, the flute is played when pentathlon competitors are in the jumping event, as the flute is sacred to Apollo.

Fifty years after the flood of Deucalion, Clymenus, son of Cardis, descendant of Heracles of Ida, came from Crete to Olympia and founded an altar for his ancestor Heracles and the other Curetes. Clímeno was deposed by Endimião, son of Aetlio, who left the kingdom to his son who won a race.

The next to celebrate games in Olympia were Pelops, Amitaão, son of Creteus, the brothers Neleus and Pelias, Augias and Heracles, son of Amphitryon. Óxilo was the last of this era to celebrate the games, which were not celebrated again until his descendant Iphitus of Élida.

Decline

The golden period of the ancient Olympic Games corresponded to the 5th century BC. The disturbances that the Peloponnesian War generated in Greece would inevitably have consequences for the games: Élide, who until then had maintained a politically neutral attitude, allied herself with Athens during this conflict and banned the Spartans from the event. In 424 BC, under threat of invasion from Sparta, the games had to be held under the protection of troops. Although Sparta did not actually invade the sanctuary, this episode reveals that the concept of the "sacred truce" had been forgotten. In 365 BC Arcadia, helped by Pisa (enemy of Élide), conquered the sanctuary; the two cities organized the games in 364 BC Élide tried to recover the sanctuary using force; the conflict generated would lead to the pillaging of the Altis temples. Élide would end up regaining control of the sanctuary because the wrath of the gods was feared, and the Olympics of 364 BC were considered invalid.

In 336 BC, after the Greek cities had been conquered by Philip II of Macedonia and his son Alexander the Great, the Philippion was built in Altis, a building where there were statues of Alexander and his family made of gold and ivory, materials that until then they had been reserved for statues of the gods.

In 146 BC Greece was conquered by the Romans. To finance his war against Mithridates VI of Pontus, the Roman general Sulla sacked Altis (as well as the sanctuaries at Delphi and Epidaurus). In 80 BC, as a way of celebrating the success of his war, Sulla moved the games to Rome, but after his death in 78 BC the games returned to Olympia. During a brief period of the Roman era, games regained their vitality.

Characteristics

Local

The Olympic Games took place in the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, which was made of crystallized marble located in the western region of the Peloponnese, about 15 kilometers from the Ionian Sea, close to the confluence of the Alpheus and Cladeos rivers. This sanctuary takes its name from Mount Olympus (which is located far from the site, in Thessaly, northern Greece), the highest point on mainland Greece and which in Greek mythology was the residence of the deities.

The core of Olympia was Áltis, a sacred grove. In the center of the forest there was a Doric style temple dedicated to Zeus, which was built between 468 and 456 BC, inside which there was a colossal statue of the god by Phidias and which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Participants

Athletes

Foreigners (the "barbarians" according to Greek mythology), slaves and women could not participate in the games - it is suggested that only the priestess of Demeter could be present at the altar in honor of the goddess. Women who violated the rule would be thrown from the top of Mount Tipéon. There was an exclusively female competition, the Heraea, named in honor of Hera, Zeus' wife. The case is told of a woman, Calipatira, who, in 404 BC, dressed in men's clothing, disguised herself as a trainer to enter the gymnasium and watch her son, Psídoro de Thurio, fight. The son won the race and the mother, celebrating the victory, dropped her disguise, revealing herself to be a woman. She was acquitted because she came from a family of Olympic champions, but after that event, coaches also began to appear naked in competitions. There were women considered champions, however, in horse races, where the owner of the horse, not the drivers, was declared the winner. The athletes generally came from the most advantaged classes and had been

introduced to sport from a young age. They did not just come from mainland Greece, but from all parts of the Greek world, which in Antiquity included the colonies spread along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The winners were honored by their city: they could receive free food, have statues erected in their honor and be sung by poets.

Organization

The organization of the games was the responsibility of the Élide polis. In 668 BC Phydon of Argos conquered Olympia and handed control of the sanctuary to the city of Pisa, which organized the games until 558 BC, the year in which Élide regained control over Olympia thanks to the intervention of Sparta.

In the year in which the games were to be held, Élide sent heralds throughout Greece who announced the specific date on which the games would take place and who invited athletes and spectators to participate. The heralds also announced the sacred truce, which prohibited war during the period of the games and which aimed to protect spectators and athletes during their arrival, stay and return.

The Olympic Games were supervised by judges, the helanócides ("judges of the Hellenes"). These judges came from the nobility of Élide, being chosen at random ten months before the start of the festival; the number of judges has varied over time. The judges were responsible for sending the heralds. They should also guarantee the good condition of the sanctuary buildings and guarantee policing and security. They also intervened in the competitions, drawing lots of athletes, refereeing the competitions and proclaiming the winners, whom they crowned. The judges took an oath through which they committed to judging competitors impartially and to keeping aspects related to an athlete confidential. They also ordered the execution of punishments for athletes and

coaches who had not complied with the rules; these could be punished with floggings in a public place, something that among the Greeks was generally reserved for slaves. In the case of bribery, high fines were imposed, the money of which was used to pay for bronze statues of Zeus, displayed in the sanctuary. Athletes and coaches arrived in Élide a month in advance to train under the supervision of the judges. It is believed that during this period athletes who were not considered fit or who did not meet the participation criteria were excluded.

Competitions

Gun race

Pedestrian races

Pedestrian races included four types of races: the stadium, the diaulo (or double stadium), the dolic and the hoplitódromo (or arms race). The stadium was the oldest and most prestigious event, as the winner would give his name to the games. It consisted of a 192 meter race, the length of the stadium; diaulo corresponded to a run of 384 meters. As for the dolic, it was a race that varied between 7 and 24 furlongs. The arms race varied between 2 and 4 stages and in it the athletes carried the hoplites' helmet and shield, which could be painful given the weight of this weaponry. To prevent fraud, the shields used by athletes were kept in the Temple of Zeus, to prevent anyone from running with a shield that was lighter.

Equestrian races

This type of event included chariot or saddle horse races. In the first two horses (bigas) or four horses (quadrigas) could be used. Quadrigues would have been introduced into the Olympic Games for the first time in 680 BC and saddle horse racing in 648 BC. A chariot race consisted of twelve laps around the hippodrome, each

lap being between 823 and 914 meters; the horse race was a lap of the hippodrome.

It was not the men who had won the races who received the crowns, but the owners of the horses, as these involved costs that only the richest could bear. Thus, some wealthy women and politicians became winners of these races, without ever having participated in them.

Fighting, boxing and pancratium

Vase representing fight scene

The fight was born in the Near East, having been adapted by the Greeks, perhaps in Mycenaean times. His patron god was Hermes.

In Greek wrestling it was necessary to cause the opponent to fall three times to become the winner. A fall was considered to have occurred when the opponent's back, shoulders or chest had touched the ground. Before starting the fight, the competitors greased their bodies with olive oil and sprinkled a little dirt on them to prevent their skin from becoming slippery. The test did not have a time limit. It was permitted to break the opponent's fingers, but it was not permitted to attack the genital region or resort to biting. There were tests reserved for adult men and boys.

The practice of boxing in Ancient Greece dates back to the 8th century BC. You could only attack with your fists and competitors wrapped their fingers with leather straps. There were no assaults or categories based on the weight of the athletes. The game ended when one of the athletes became unconscious or put a finger in the air as a sign of giving up.

The pancratium was a combination of fighting and boxing, the result being an extremely violent test, in which competitors could even die. Everything was permitted, with the exception of sticking fingers in the eyes, attacking the genital region, scratching or biting. Victory

occurred when one of the athletes was no longer able to continue fighting, raising a finger so that the judge could notice.

For each of these sports, there were competitions reserved for adult men and boys.

Pentathlon

An athlete performs the long jump armed with two dumbbells

The pentathlon of the ancient Greeks was different from the modern pentathlon, being composed of the discus throw, the javelin throw, the long jump, the stadium run (similar to the 200 m) and the fight.

The disc thrown by the athletes weighed around 9.5 kilos and could be made of stone, iron or bronze. The winner was the one who could throw the disc as far as possible and the winner was also considered a hero. As for the javelin, it was the height of a man and was made of wood. In the long jump, four dumbbells were used to propel the athlete upwards and were then thrown when he descended.

If an athlete had won the first three pentathlon events, the last two would not take place.

THE HISTORY OF GREECE

The History of Greece comprises the study of the Greeks, the areas they governed and the territory of present-day Greece.

The scope of housing and government of the Greek people has undergone several changes over the years and, as a consequence, the history of Greece reflects this elasticity. Each period had its own interests.

The first Greeks arrived in Europe shortly before 1,500 BC, and during its heyday, Greek civilization ruled everything between

Greece, Egypt and Indocush. The Greeks established traditions of justice and individual freedom, which would become the foundations of contemporary democracy. His art, philosophy and science became foundations of Western thought and culture. The ancient Greeks called themselves Hellenes (everyone who spoke Greek, even if they didn't live in Greece), and they called their land Hellas. Those who did not speak Greek were called barbarians. During antiquity, they never formed a national government, even though they were united by the same culture, religion and language.

From the ancient Greek past to the present world, most Greek minorities remained in their former Greek territories (Turkey, Italy, Libya, Levant), and Greek emigrants assimilated into different societies across the globe (North America, Australia , northern Europe, South Africa and others). Currently, however, the majority of Greeks live in the states of contemporary Greece (independent since 1821) and Cyprus (independent since 1960).

Aegean Civilization: Prehistoric Greece

The first civilization to appear in Greece was the Minoan (or Minoan, or Minian) Civilization in the Aegean Sea. This culture took place approximately between 2,600 BC and 1,450 BC Compared to more recent periods of Greek history, little is known about the Minoans, whose name is even a modern term, coming from Minos, legendary king of Crete. Apparently, the Minoans were a pre-Indo-European people. Their language, known as Eteocretense and unrelated to the Greek language, is probably what is seen in the writing system called Linear A, found on the island, but which has not yet been deciphered.

The Minoans were a mainly merchant people, engaged in maritime trade, that is, they were of thalassocratic culture. Features of

Minoan religious life mainly include symbolism, the absence of temples, and the prominence of female deities.

Although the causes of the fall of these people are uncertain, it is known that they ended up being invaded by the Mycenaeans, a people from mainland Greece.

Mycenaean Period (Bronze Age)

The restored Stoa of Attalus, Athens

Mycenaean Greece, also known as "Bronze Age Greece", is the name given to the Bronze Age civilization of the Early Helladic period (the latter generally established as the interval 2500–1900 BC). Greek culture of this period lasted from the arrival of the Greeks in the Aegean around 1,600 BC until the collapse of their Bronze Age civilization around 1,100 BC. It is to this period that Homer's epic work refers, as well as much of Greek mythology. The Mycenaean period had its name adopted from the archaeological site of Mycenae, a city located in the northeast of Argolis, a region of the Peloponnese (a huge peninsula in southern Greece). Athens, Pylos, Thebes and Tiryns are also important archaeological sites from the Greek Mycenaean period.

The Mycenaean Civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1,400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, the center of the Minoan Civilization (cf. previous item, Aegean Civilization), and adopted a form of Minoan writing so that they could record their early variant of the Greek language. The new spelling system (Minoan symbols representing the new Greek language), the Mycenaean writing system, was called Linear B.

The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in tolos (Greek: θόλοι; singular thólos; literally "dome" or "dome-shaped"), large circular burial chambers with a high vaulted ceiling and an open rectangular-shaped entrance passage, lined with the stones from which the tomb was

made. Mário Giordani defines a classic example of a fool as being "the tomb found in Mycenae and known as the Treasury of Atreus. It was common to bury daggers or any other military equipment with the deceased. The aristocracy were often buried with gold masks, tiaras, armor and jewel-encrusted weapons.The Mycenaeans were buried in the sitting position, and some aristocracy were mummified.

Around 1,100 BC, the Mycenaean Civilization began to celebrate because life was great and very calm. Several cities were sacked and the region entered what historians call the Dark Ages. During this period, Greece experienced both a population and literary decline. The Greeks themselves used to attribute the cause of this decline to the invasion of a new wave of Greeks, the Dorians. However, archaeological evidence that could prove this point of view is scarce.

Age of darkness

The Dark Ages in Greece (c. 1,200–800 BC) refers to the period of Greek prehistory beginning with the presumed Doric invasion, bringing about the end of the Mycenaean Civilization in the 11th century BC, and ending with the rise of the first cities -Greek states in the 9th century BC, with the epic poems of Homer and with the first instances of Greek alphabetic writing in the 8th century BC

The collapse of the Mycenaeans coincided with the fall of several other great empires in the Near East, especially the Hittite and Egyptian empires. The reason can be attributed to an invasion of the Talas Socratic population in possession of iron weapons. When the Dorians appeared in Greece, they too were equipped with superior iron weapons, easily defeating the already weak Mycenaeans. The period that followed these events is called the Dark Ages in Greece or the Greek Dark Ages. Archeology shows that the civilization of the Greek world suffered a collapse during this period. The great palaces and cities of the Mycenaeans were destroyed or abandoned. The Greek language stopped being written. The ceramic art of

Greece during the Dark Ages shows simplistic geometric designs, devoid of the rich figurative decoration of Mycenaean wares. The Greeks of the Dark Ages lived in smaller and more sparse dwellings, which suggests famine, food shortages and a population decline. No imported items were found in archaeological sites, showing that international trade was minimal. Contact between powers in the outside world was also lost during this time, resulting in slow cultural progress, as well as an atrophy of any kind of growth.

The kings of this period maintained their form of government until they were replaced by an aristocracy. Later, in some areas, this aristocracy was replaced by an aristocratic sector within itself - the elite of the elite. Military warfare techniques had their focus changed from cavalry to infantry, and due to the cheap cost of production and its local availability, iron replaced bronze as a metal, being used in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Slowly equality grew between different social strata, resulting in the usurpation of several kings and the rise of the geno, that is, family.

The families, called genos, began to reconstruct their past, in an attempt to trace their lineages to heroes of the Trojan War, and even beyond - most notably to Hercules. While most of those stories were just legends, some were picked apart by poets of the school of Hesiod. Some of these "storytellers", as they were called, included Hecataeus of Miletus and Acusilaus of Argos, but most of these poems have been lost.

Homer's epic poems are believed to contain a certain amount of tradition preserved orally during the Dark Ages period. The historical validity of Homer's writings has been vigorously disputed (cf. the "Homeric question").

At the end of this period of stagnation (one of the main characteristics of the Dark Ages) Greek civilization was taken by a period of renaissance that spread throughout the Greek world,

reaching as far as the Black Sea and the Iberian Peninsula. Writing was reintroduced by the Phoenicians, taken up and modified by the Greeks, and then by the Romans and the Gauls.

Archaic period

The archaic period runs from the 12th to the 8th century BC. Generally, "Ancient Greece" is called the entire period of Greek history prior to the Roman Empire, while "Archaic Greece", a term used by historians, refers specifically to one of the periods of Greek antiquity.

Some writers include the eras of Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations in the Greek archaic period, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classified separately. Traditionally, it has been agreed that the Greek archaic period began with the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC, but most historians currently go back this interval to approximately 1,000 BC. The transition date to the end of this period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, which marked the beginning of the period classified as Hellenistic. However, not everyone observes this rule of distinction between Archaic and Hellenistic Greece: some writers prefer to consider ancient Greek civilization as a continuum extending until the advent of Christianity in the 3rd century AD.

Archaic Greece is considered by most historians to be a culture that represented the foundation of Western civilization. Greek culture was a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which brought a version of that culture to many parts of Europe. The civilization of archaic Greece was a powerful influence on the modern world, in several cultural aspects, such as language, politics, education and schooling, philosophy, art and architecture, mainly during the Renaissance in Western Europe, and, again, during several

neoclassical revival periods. in the 18th and 19th centuries in both Europe and the Americas.

The basic political unit in archaic Greece was the polis, usually translated as city-state. The very word "politics", "public affairs" or "state affairs") means "affairs of the polis". Each city was independent, at least in theory. Some cities could be subordinate to others (like a colony traditionally acceding to its mother city), others could adopt forms of government entirely dependent on other cities (the Thirty Tyrants of Athens were imposed by Sparta at the end of the Peloponnesian War), but the title of supreme power of each city was found in themselves. This means that when Greece went to war (e.g. against the Achaemenid Empire), it was as if an alliance went to war. This characteristic, on the other hand, also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece itself, between different cities.

Most of the Greek names known to readers in today's world come from this time. Among the poets, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes and Sappho were active. Famous politicians include Themistocles, Pericles, Lysander, Epaminondas, Alcibiades, Philip II of Macedon, and his son Alexander the Great. Still in this period, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle left their legacy, as well as Heraclitus of Ephesus, Parmenides, Democritus, Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon. Almost all of the knowledge and mathematical study formalized in Euclid's Elements, published in the Hellenistic period, was developed during the archaic era.

Two wars of major importance marked the ancient Greek world: the Medical Wars and the Peloponnesian War. The Medical Wars (500–448 BC) are told in Herodotus' "Histories". The Ionian Greek cities revolted against the Persian Empire and were supported by some mainland cities, eventually being led by Athens (the most memorable battles of this war include the Battle of Marathon, the Battle of Thermopylae, the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plateia).

In order to carry out the war - and, subsequently, to defend Greece from subsequent attacks by the Persians - Athens founded the League, or Confederation of Delos in 477 BC Initially each city in the confederation would contribute soldiers and ships to an army common Greek, but over time Athens allowed (and then forced) smaller cities to contribute capital instead of building ships. Any revolution with the intention of leaving or modifying the confederation would be punished. After conflicts with the Persians, the treasure ended up being transferred from Delos to Athens, which resulted in the strengthening of that city under the control of the confederation. The Delian League ended up being referred to pejoratively as "the Athenian Empire".

In 458 BC, even while the Medical Wars were still taking place, war broke out between the Delian Confederacy and the Peloponnesian Confederacy, which comprised Sparta and its allies. After inconclusive battles, the two sides signed a peace treaty in 447 B.C.

It was stipulated that the treaty should last thirty years, but instead it survived only until 431 BC, when the fearsome Peloponnesian War broke out, which would forever change the Greek world. The main sources about what happened in this famous war are Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian War" and Xenophon's "Hellenic".

Thucydides reports that one of the first causes of the war was the dispute between Corcyra and Epidamnus. The latter was a smaller city, which Thucydides himself considers necessary to inform the reader about where it is located. Corinth, which also claimed control over the city (Epidamno), intervened in the dispute, taking the side of the Epidamniians. Afraid that Corinth might capture the Corcyraean navy (which, in size, was second only to the Athenian one), Corcyra sought help from Athens, who ended up intervening, preventing Corinth from disembarking in Corcyra during the Battle

of Sibota, besieging Potidaea and prohibiting any and all trade between Corinth and Megara, its closest ally (cf. megaric decree).

There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which party had violated the treaty between the Delian and Peloponnesian confederations, due to the fact that Athens was defending an ally (which the peace treaty itself allowed). The Corinthians asked Sparta for help. Fearful of Athens' growing power, and observing how the Athenians were willing to use that power to subdue the Megarians (the Athenian embargo of the Megarian decree would have ruined the state), Sparta finally declared that the peace treaty had been violated, starting the Peloponnesian War.

The first phase of the war (known as the "Ten Years' War" or, less frequently, as "Archidamus' War", after the Spartan king Archidamus II) lasted until 421 BC, when the Peace of Nicias took place. The Athenian general and leader Pericles claimed that his city was fighting a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces of the Spartans, importing everything necessary through the powerful Athenian navy: the plan was simply to hold out longer than Sparta could. fight - the Spartans feared being absent from their city for a long time due to the revolts raised by the helots. For this strategy to work, Athens had to endure regular sieges, until in 430 BC the city suffered from the appearance of a terrible plague, which ended up decimating approximately a quarter of its population, including Pericles himself.

With Pericles' absence from the government and military leadership, less conservative elements gained power and Athens went on the offensive. The city captured around 300 to 400 Spartan hoplites at the Battle of Pylos. This amount represented a significant fraction of the Spartan offensive strength, which they ultimately decided they could not afford to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating defeats at Decelia and Amphipolis. The Treaty of Nicias concluded with the Spartan recovery of their hostages and the

Athenian recovery of the city of Amphipolis. Athens and Sparta signed the Treaty of Nicias in 421 BC, promising to maintain it for fifty years.

The second phase of the Peloponnesian War began in 415 BC, when Athens embarked on the Expedition to Sicily (415–413 BC) to support Segesta, a city that had asked for Athenian help after being attacked by Selinunte, leader of the city of Syracuse, who was trying to obtain hegemony over Sicily. Initially, Sparta was willing not to help its Syracusan ally, in the same way that Nicias had asked Athens not to meddle in the matter, since the peace treaty was still standing. However, Alcibiades, an Athenian general of great influence among young people at the time, ended up convincing the Athenians to intervene in the conflict, resulting in the inflammation of Sparta, which accused him of incredibly gross impious acts and ended up taking part in the conflict as well. , since it could not allow Athens to subjugate Syracuse (this would result in Athenian dominance over the western cereal market, in addition to opening the way to Etruria). The campaign ended up being a complete disaster, and probably the greatest defeat suffered by the Athenians to date, with Nicias killed and Alcibiades deserting Athens and joining forces with Sparta.

With the support of the new Spartan general Alcibiades, the Ionian possessions of Athens rebel. In 411 BC, through an oligarchic revolution in Athens, peace was achieved, but the Athenian navy, which remained faithful to the democratic system of government, refused to accept the change and continued fighting in the name of Athens. Alcibiades, who wanted to return to Athens, planned to ally with the Persians to defeat the Spartans, but, as there were no means, and, later, due to the supposed attempt to seduce the wife of King Agis II, Spartan king, he ended up leaving Sparta , addressing the Athenian forces stationed on Samos, where he was

welcomed as a general. The oligarchy in Athens ended up collapsing and Alcibiades set out to regain what had been lost.

In 407 BC, however, Alcibiades would be replaced due to a naval defeat at the Battle of Nócio. The Spartan general Lysander, strengthening the naval power of his city, won victory after victory. After the Battle of Arginusa, on the Arginusa islands, whose victory belonged to the Athenians, but which, due to bad weather, had their naval troops prevented from rescuing some of their shipwrecked and wounded men, Athens made the mistake of executing and ostracizing eight of its best commanders. Lysander won a crushing victory at the Battle of Egospotamus (River of Goats) in 405 BC, which virtually destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens ended up surrendering a year later, finally putting an end to the Peloponnesian War.

The war left a trail of devastation. Unhappy with the Spartan hegemony that followed (including the fact that Sparta had ceded Ionia and Cyprus to the Achaemenid Empire with the end of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC); cf. Treaty of Antalcidas), Thebes decided to attack. Their general, Epaminondas, crushed Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, inaugurating the brief period of Theban domination in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in its conflict with Phocis, which had already lasted ten years, Thebes asked Philip II of Macedon for help, which resulted in rapid Macedonian rule over much of Greece, which was weakened after 27 years of fight each other. The basic political unit from that moment on was the empire, which ended up beginning the Greek Hellenistic period.

Hellenistic period

Philip V of Macedon, "the darling of Hellas", wearing his royal diadem

The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of Alexander in 323 BC and ends with the annexation of the Greek

peninsula and islands by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. Despite the fact that the establishment of Roman government did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture - which remained essentially the same until the advent of Christianity - it marked, however, the end of Greek political independence.

During the Hellenistic period, the importance of Greece "itself" (i.e., the territory represented by present-day Greece) within the Grecophone world sharply delineated. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively. Other important centers were Smyrna, Seleucia on the Tigris, Ephesus, and Pergamum, all outside mainland Greece (cf. Hellenistic Civilization for the history of Greek civilization outside Greece during this period.)

Athens and its allies (all the populations of Central Greece and the Peloponnese, with the exception of Sparta), upon receiving news of Alexander's death, revolted against Macedonia, but were defeated within a year, in the Lamian War. Meanwhile, a struggle over the power left by Alexander broke out among his generals, resulting in the dismemberment of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (cf. Diadochis). Ptolemy got Egypt, Seleucus got the Levant, Mesopotamia and some cities to the east. Control of Greece, Thrace and Anatolia was contested, but by 298 BC the Antigonid dynasty had supplanted the Antipatrid.

Macedonian control of the Greek city-states was intermittent, with the appearance of revolts. Athens, Rhodes, Pergamum, and other Greek states maintained substantial independence, joining the Aetolian Confederation (or "Aetolian League") with the intention of defending that independence. The Confederation of Achaia (or "League of Achaia"), although theoretically subject to the Ptolemaic dynasty (also called the Lagid dynasty), in fact acted independently,

controlling the majority of southern Greece. Sparta also remained independent, but refused to be part of confederations.

In 267 BC, Ptolemy II persuaded Greek cities to revolt against Macedonia, resulting in the War of Chremonides, named after the Athenian leader Chremonides. The Greek cities were defeated and Athens lost its independence as well as its democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as a political agent, even though it remained the largest, richest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 255 BC, Macedonia defeated the Egyptian fleet at Kos and extended its rule to all the Aegean islands, with the exception of Rhodes.

Sparta remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BC ended up invading Achaia, gaining control of the Confederacy. The remaining Achaeans preferred to distance themselves from Macedonia and ally themselves with Sparta. In 222 BC, the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed the city - it was the first time Sparta had been occupied by a foreign power.

Philip V of Macedonia was the last Greek ruler who had both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the power of Rome, but he died from a wound that continued to grow. Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupact (217 BC) At that time he had control of all of Greece, with the exception of Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.

In 215 BC, however, Philip had forged an alliance with the Roman enemy, Carthage. Immediately, Rome seduced the Achaean cities, causing them to abandon their former loyalty to Philip, and made alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum - the latter, the greatest power in Asia Minor. The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC, ending inconclusively in 205 BC. Macedonia, however, had been marked as an enemy of Rome.

In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, leaving it free to pay attention to the east. In 198 BC the Second Macedonian War broke out — for

reasons that are still unclear, but basically because Rome saw Macedonia as a potential ally of the Seleucids, the greatest power in the east. Philip's allies in Greece disowned him, and in 197 BC he was finally defeated at the Battle of Cynocephali by the Roman consul Titus Quintius Flamininus.

Fortunately for the Greeks, Flaminius was a man of moderation and a self-confessed admirer of Greek culture, as well as knowing and speaking the language - which is why, in fact, many of Philip's allies had sided with Flaminius. Philip had to capitulate his fleet and become a Roman ally, so he was spared. During the Isthmian Games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in 196 BC, Flaminius declared, amid general enthusiasm, the independence of the Greek cities, making them free, despite Roman garrisons still being found in Corinth and Chalkidiki. The freedom promised by Rome, however, was an illusion. All cities, except Rhodes, were part of a new Confederation controlled by Rome itself, and democracy was replaced by aristocratic regimes allied to Rome.

Greco-Roman period

Militarily, Greece had entered into such decline that the Romans conquered its entire territory (168 BC onwards) - even though Greek culture, in return, had "conquered" the Romans.

Although the beginning of Roman rule over Greece is conventionally dated to the sack of Corinth by Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, at the end of the Achaean War, Macedonia had already fallen under Roman control with the defeat of its king, Perseus, by Lucius. Emílio Paulo Macedônico at the Battle of Pydna, in 168 BC, at the end of the Third Macedonian War. The Romans divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC, Macedonia officially became a Roman province, making Thessaloniki its capital. The remainder of the Greek city-states gradually, and eventually, paid homage to Rome, finally burying their de jure autonomy. The Romans left local

administration to the Greeks without even trying to abolish the traditional political pattern. The agora in Athens continued to be the center of civil and cultural life.

Caracalla's edict in 212 AD, called the Edict of Caracalla, granted Roman citizenship to people born outside the Italian peninsula to all adult males throughout the Roman Empire, so that provincial populations had their status equaled to that of their own. city of Rome. The importance of this decree is historical, more than political: it served as the basis for integration where the state's economic and judicial mechanisms could be applied throughout the Mediterranean in the same way as it had been with Lazio, throughout the Italian peninsula. In practice, naturally, integration did not occur uniformly. Societies already integrated into Rome, such as Greece, were favored by the edict, compared to societies further away, those that were very poor or those that were simply very different, such as Britannia, Dacia and Germania.

Caracalla's edict did not set in motion the process that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated it, establishing the basis for Greece's rise as a major power in Europe and the Mediterranean. during the Middle Ages. During this period, Christianity, coming from Palestine, was introduced to Greece in the middle of the 1st century AD by Paul of Tarsus. Several of the New Testament epistles were addressed to Greek cities such as Corinth, Thessalonica, Philippi and Ephesus. After around 200 years, the Christian religion had become predominant throughout Greece and would exert a greater influence on the Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine period

The history of the Byzantine Empire is described by academic August Heisenberg as the history of "the Roman state of the Greek nation that became Christian." The division of the empire into west

and east and the subsequent collapse of the Western Roman Empire were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and ended up allowing them to be completely identified with it. Constantinople's main role began when Constantine transformed Byzantium into the new capital of the Roman Empire, whose name was changed to Constantinople. The city, located in the heart of Hellenism, became a reference point for the Greeks until the modern era.

Emperors Constantine and Justinian exercised their rule over Rome during the period from 324 to 610. Assimilating Roman tradition, the emperors sought to provide the basis for subsequent improvements and the formation of the Byzantine Empire. Efforts to safeguard the empire's borders and to restore Roman territories marked the first centuries. At the same time, the definitive formation and establishment of orthodox doctrine, as well as a series of conflicts resulting from heresies developed on the borders of the empire, marked the initial period of Byzantine history.

In the first period of the middle of the Byzantine era (610-867) the empire was attacked both by old enemies (Persians, Lombards, Avars and Slavs) and by new groups that appeared for the first time in history (Arabs, Bulgarians). The main characteristic of this period is the fact that enemy attacks were not limited to the state's border areas, but extended far beyond, even threatening the capital itself. At the same time, such attacks lost their periodic and temporary character, turning into permanent installations that became new states - of course, hostile to the Byzantine Empire. Changes could also be observed in the internal structure of the empire, dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of small free farmers, the expansion of military states and the development of the theme system gave the final touch to the evolutionary process that had begun in the previous period. More changes could also be seen in the administrative sector: administration and society

had become Greek in an immiscible way, while the process of restoring orthodoxy after the iconoclastic movement successfully allowed the resumption of missionary actions among neighboring peoples and their positions in the sphere of Byzantine cultural influence. During this period, the State was geographically reduced and economically harmed, as wealth-producing regions had been lost; However, the State achieved much greater linguistic, dogmatic and cultural homogeneity.

The year 1204 marks the beginning of the late Byzantine period, when the most important event for the empire took place. Constantinople was lost to the Greeks for the first time, and the empire had been conquered by crusaders from the Latin world, being replaced by a new empire where Latin would be the language of government, a period that lasted for 57 years. Furthermore, the period of Latin occupation definitively influenced the internal developments of the empire, since feudal elements began to be part of the Byzantine way of life.

In 1261, the Greek empire was divided between members of the ancient Greco-Byzantine Komnenos dynasty (Despotate of Epirus) and between the Palaiologos dynasty (the last dynasty until the fall of Constantinople). After the gradual weakening of the structures of the Byzantine Greek state and the reduction of its territory due to the invasions of the Turks, the Greek Byzantine Empire finally came to an end at the hands of the Ottomans, in 1453, a date considered as the end of the Byzantine period.

It is important to note that the term "Byzantine" is a contemporary idea, agreed upon by historians. People at the time used to call the empire from the 20th century onwards simply as the "Greek Empire", much like the "Romeo-Greek Empire" before that. For this reason, the Greeks sometimes call themselves "Romioí" (Ρωμιοί) in a colloquial way. The term "Romeo" ('related to Rome') was sometimes used due to the tradition bequeathed to many aspects of the

political administration of the empire. It should also be said that many empires throughout Europe used the term, in addition to the Greek Byzantines, such as the Carolingians or the Germanic Holy Roman Empire (Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium), which considered themselves as legitimate heirs of the Empire Roman.

Ottoman period

The Battle of Navarino in October 1827 marked the definitive end of Ottoman rule in Greece

When the Ottomans arrived, two Greek migrations took place. The first comprised the Greek intellectual layer, which migrated to Western Europe, influencing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migration was that of the Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula and settling in the mountains. The country, mostly made up of mountainous terrain, prevented the Ottomans from conquering the entire Greek peninsula, as they did not develop a military or administrative presence in the mountains. There were many mountain Greek clans throughout the peninsula and islands. The Sfachiots of Crete, the Suliots of Epirus, and the Maniots of the Peloponnese were among the most resilient mountain clans throughout the period of the Ottoman Empire. Between the end of the 16th century and the 17th century, many Greeks began to migrate from the mountains to the plains. The millet system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of the Orthodox Greeks by segregating the population of the Ottoman Empire according to each person's religion. The Greek Orthodox Church, an ethnoreligious institution, provided assistance to Greeks from all geographic areas of the peninsula (i.e. mountains, plains and islands) to preserve their ethnic, cultural, linguistic and racial heritage during the harsh years of Ottoman rule . The Greeks who lived in the plains during the Ottoman occupation were either Christians who suffered from foreign rule or Crypto Christians (Greek Muslims who secretly practiced the faith of the Orthodox Church). Many Greeks became

crypto Christians in order to avoid heavy taxation, while at the same time expressing their identity by maintaining secret relations with the Greek Orthodox Church. However, Greeks who converted to Islam and who were not crypto-Christians were considered Turks in the eyes of the Orthodox Greeks, even if they did not adopt the Turkish language. On the other hand, the converted layer played an immense role in the creation of modern Greek culture, since Turkish traditions and customs were learned throughout the occupational period. The most obvious traces of Turkish influence on current Greek culture can be seen in Greek music and cuisine.

Modern period

The Chios Massacre (1824), by Eugène Delacroix, when the Ottomans violently repressed the Greeks. In the 1830s Greece gained its independence.

The Ottoman Empire dominated Greece until the beginning of the 19th century. In 1821, the Greeks rose up, declaring their independence in the Greek War of Independence, although they only achieved real emancipation in 1829. The elites of European nations saw the Greek war of independence - duly accompanied by examples of atrocities committed by the Turks - in a romantic way (cf. the painting "Massacre of Chios" from 1824, by Eugène Delacroix). A large number of non-Greek volunteers fought for the cause (including, for example, Lord Byron) and yet at times the Ottomans found themselves on the verge of suppressing the Greek revolution almost completely, had it not been for French intervention. , England and Russian Empire. Ioánnis Kapodístrias, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, himself a Greek, returned to the motherland as president of the new republic, after the officialization of Greek independence. The republic disappeared a few years later, when Western powers helped transform Greece into a monarchy, whose first king came from Bavaria and the second from Denmark. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, in a series of wars against the

Ottomans, Greece sought to extend its borders to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire, slowly expanding its territory and population until reaching its current configuration in 1947. In World War I, Greece joined the Triple Entente powers to fight against the Ottoman Empire and the Triple Alliance. After the war, Greece was granted parts of Asia Minor, including the city of Smyrna, whose population was largely Greek. At the time, however, Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk overthrew the Ottoman government, organized a military attack on Greek troops and defeated them. Immediately, hundreds of thousands of Turks living on the territory of mainland Greece moved to Turkey, in exchange for hundreds of thousands of Greeks living in Turkey, who were to be sent to Greece.

Despite the country's armed forces being numerically small and poorly equipped, Greece contributed decisively to the Allies in World War II. At the beginning of the war, Greece joined the Allies and refused to meet the demands of the Kingdom of Italy. On October 28, 1940, Italy invaded Greece, but Greek troops expelled the invaders after a bloody battle (cf. Greco-Italian War), marking the Allies' first victory in the war. Hitler reluctantly became involved, with the main objective of securing dominance over his southern flank: troops from Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria and Italy successfully invaded Greece, achieving triumph over Greek, British, Australian and New Zealand units.

However, when the Germans attempted to take Crete in a massive paratroop attack - with the aim of reducing the threat of a possible counterattack by Allied forces in Egypt - the Allies, as well as the Cretans, offered fierce resistance. Although Cretan resistance ended up coming over land, the battle significantly delayed German plans, so that the German invasion aimed at the Soviet Union began fatally close to winter. A recent alternative view of the event is that the German troops involved in the battle of Crete were not so

numerous as to impact the much larger attack against the Soviet Union.

During many years of Nazi occupation, thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps or from pure starvation. The occupiers murdered much of the Jewish community despite attempts by the Greek Orthodox Church and many Greek Christians to protect the Jews. The economy took on an air of languor. After liberation, Greece experienced an equally cruel civil war - between communists and royalists (monarchists), which lasted three years (1946–1949).

During the 1950s and 1960s, Greece continued to evolve slowly, first with help from the United States, through grants and loans from the Marshall Plan, and, later, with the increase in the tourist sector. In 1967, the Greek armed forces seized power in a coup d'état, overthrowing the right-wing government of Panayiotis Kanellopoulos and establishing the Greek military junta of 1967-01974, which would become a colonel regime. It was even suspected that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was involved in the coup, and the new regime in Athens was supported by the United States. In 1973, the regime abolished the Greek monarchy. In 1974, the dictator Papadopoulos denied aid to the United States, conjecturing that, as a result, this country, through the cooperation of Henry Kissinger, had organized a second coup d'état. Colonel Demétrios Ioannides was appointed as the new head of state.

Many consider Ioannides responsible for the coup against President Makarios III of Cyprus - the coup would be a pretext for the first wave of Turkish invasions of Cyprus in 1974 (cf. the 1974 crisis between Greece and Turkey). The events in Cyprus and the demonstrations that followed the violent repression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising led to the outbreak of a military regime. A charismatic exiled politician, Konstantinos G. Karamanlís, returned from Paris as interim prime minister and later won reelection to two

terms as leader of the conservative New Democracy party in 1975, following the plebiscite that confirmed the deposition of King Constantine II, a constitution democratic republican was established. Another previously exiled politician, Andreas Papandreou, also returned to Greece and founded the socialist party PASOK, which won elections in 1981, dominating the country's political course for nearly two decades.

Since the restoration of democracy, Greece's economic stability and prosperity has grown. The country became part of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro as its currency in 2001. New infrastructure, EU funds and rising tourist income, its merchant marine, its services, its electrical and telecommunications industries have brought the Greeks a standard of unprecedented life. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and Turkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in the Aegean Sea, but relations between these two countries have thawed considerably following a series of earthquakes - first in Turkey and then in Greece - and frequent of sympathy and generous assistance on both sides. I want to thank everyone for this work that I did as proof of a good writer and I want to show everyone my point of view about Greece and thank you all very much.

I want to thank you for this work prescribed here as a very familiar example of a great people who have always dedicated themselves to popular culture and I want to say that we are well acquainted with the finest nature and I see that it makes us look for the true reason for knowing much better the life and the ancient world and I want to wish everyone this wonderful story in which it portrays us about several romantic songs of very deep love about a past that was stuck in time and that still reveals to us today and shows us the simple reason why we know much better about close to beautiful old stories that today we will find an answer to your questions and that can make us know their unforgettable value up close and I want to say

here at the end with lots of love and affection to all my listeners wherever they are, be it me, you or whoever it is, the world will always be the same as always because what changes is our ways of thinking and that life is an endless resonance and that we must always go back to the old time that perhaps it can and wants to tell us that life has always been a simple reaction and revelation that made us seek, above all the certainties and uncertainties, the pure and hard notion that made man stop in time when he was undecided about life and its nature that made him recognize himself through time and teach him about the emptiness of death to get to know life better up close and that ancient times had always kept us fuller and more adapted to a simple notion of facing ourselves and understanding life better and it is said that science made man on ancient times and that today man can govern and make life the best disciplines for living, only by knowing life much better and conserving over time that he can be in a great relationship with nature that is limited to a circuit in the life of space and time. Here, with much deep love, I want to thank all my dear friends who are always enjoying here, in this climate of peace and love, the best international romantic songs that make us look for the present, past and future of a new and unforgettable generation that always will show us with more affection and dedication the best tests of living and holding back on the more than dreamed of educations and lessons that have always been stories in the life of man on earth and I want to wish here to all my dear friends, from friends to friends a unforgettable strong hug from writer and radio host Roberto Barros. Hugs and have a good day!

By: Roberto Barros