GNOSIS OF SCIENCES

PREFACE;

I want here, simply out of a great conviction of all my work as a writer and researcher in science, to talk deeply about myself and my relationships with life and how it all began, which I certainly believe we can do is one more complete and essential step that makes us live and understand all the interactions and evolutions of life regarding great scientific developments that today we can be in step with in a mere circumstance of modern life in which due to a great imagination and study ten of my adolescence and I want to satisfactorily talk here about my training in psychology with literature in which its relations between Psychology and Literature have been discussed in academic circles, above all, based on an interest in problematizing how human nature can be described and understood not as if it were an exclusive object of a given field, but as an element capable of producing reflections that cross areas that simplify various dilemmas and purposes that our pure reason expresses itself on a term and a purpose that makes us fully awaken to a set of ideas that focuses us and makes us understand the great dawn step by step of a great artistic modality and I want to say that literature is an artistic modality that has the word as its raw material, used in the construction of stories or in the expression of emotions and ideas. The literary text, unlike the non-literary text, has a subjective and connotative character in that psychology expresses the customs of aspects about the mind of a being and I want to say that Psychology is the study of all aspects of behavior and mental processes. Psychology studies the mind of the human being and how its actions can influence behavior and covers aspects ranging from childhood development to old age and here I want to highlight my best paper on philosophy that covers a great development in my metaphysics that relate to both psychology and history that we can understand a great development in logic and literature in a great study and work created by me and that as time passed like a magic step I got to know the cosmic world of the mind when I closed my eyes and I saw the cosmic light of my mind in which over a period of time I learned to know life and the world much better, which opened the doors for me to a discovery. Inês continues to study the mind to this day. cosmic and the power of the subconscious that I created a great relativity with great creations of images that unfolded with an almost magical effect in which I dedicated myself to the study of the atomic elements that I soon came across life on the great forms of the fundamental elements of atom that in a smaller fraction of time I was able to reveal almost the soul of the atom in a combination of photons that are the particles that make up light and can be defined as small packages that transport the energy contained in electromagnetic radiation and we can through great clairvoyance understand and see that in a smaller fraction of an atom everything and all particles combine excessively in the same formation of the universe in which we can understand its physical and natural state in which it gave creation to life on earth in which in its probabilities everything fixed to the material state when the chemical elements were combined in their material state in which life was created on earth through everything which is called the primordial atom that heated up and transformed from its dense state into a great chemical fluid in which a so-called atomic nucleus was formed, matter that certainly our planet in which everything was built by small fractions of atoms that entered into chemical functions in which here on the human body I researched biology and its organic systems such as the development of own universe that was densely hot in which I exploded it in a fraction of time forming into an atom in which through the cosmic study of both the mind and the universe we can develop the cells that can be generated as an atom in its functional probabilities that the atom and endowed by each chemical element that is designated over all the functions of the organism which is fully called an ecosystem which is called a biosystem and biogeocenosis which is the ecosystem that defines the relationships of interdependence that communities of living beings maintain between themselves and with the environment that surrounds them and we can certainly understand to this day that the most definitive study of life has taken a great relationship between man and nature that simply makes him live drastically and drives him crazy and we can here, out of great affection, be at the side pair with a more realistic and profound notion in which man has become, through great studies and scientific advances, the great science that makes us understand the great dawn of life and its developments with the logic and relativity of life and I simply want to talk here about the great study that I show on the chemical functions that relate to biotechnology that are defined certainly and comparatively about the great development of paneta and life that are defined in green biotechnology. Biotechnologies for agriculture. Blue biotechnology:

Simply great technologies for taking advantage of marine resources. Yellow biotechnology: technologies for nutrition and food production. Gray biotechnology: technologies for the protection and recovery of the environment that here I show with lots of love and work, an infinity and construction of life and planet earth that I simply researched and helped by showing my best studies and research that I show here that were useful to many scientists and science researchers in which I thank you for the great understanding and developments of everyone who liked my relationships with chemical nature on the planet and living beings and I want to say that I am very happy and I want to say that I contributed to the great development biophysicist. biochemistry and with great types of biotechnologies for the great development of planet earth and all living beings and environmental health and I want to say that here I show all my works and scientific efforts that for a great enablement of my dreams and efforts I dedicated all my study is the true science that served so much the study of space, the sea and our planet Earth and human beings that I simply discovered and researched in my great enthusiasm and wonder for all life and its greatest and best functions and existences for great development of the health of human beings and I want to show here below a great list of different sciences and their relationships that are defined by great studies of man that are works and descriptions of great researchers and teachers who have great particularities with life and nature and I want to here, with a lot of love and work, to thank and show the best of my studies that I also developed beautiful literature, philosophy and psychology that I developed great skills in education and medicine and thank you very much to all universities and thank you very much for this satisfaction that will be well kept as one of the best of my science books on both medicine and space science that shows all my metaphysics in which I am a great writer and scientist and I want to thank everyone here and thank you very much. Hugs!

INDEX;

1. Theosophy of the presumed mysteries of life and nature, of divinity, and of the origin and purpose of the universe.

2. Wormwood of the soul.

3. Atom.

4. The relativities of invisible alchemy.

5. The alchemy of the relativity of life.

6. Biography of stories of the body, spirit and soul.

7. A preliminary study on the development of planet Earth on various factors on the biochemical functions of life and its relationships with nature.

8.Ages.

9. Science.

10. Technology.

11. The genius of alchemy.

12. The true story of the supreme mind.

13. The supremacy of psychometric sciences and the three parts of the human being.

14. The relativities of molecules on the functions of the organism.

15. The world and the indivisible mind beyond life.

16. Poltergeist fluids on the strength of the mind.

17. Psychoanalysis of emotional and moral fluids.

18. The power of the subconscious.

RELATIONSHIPS AND ANSWERS ABOUT SCIENCES;

1. What is biology.

2. Vitamins.

3. What are vitamins for

4. Mineral salts.

5. What are minerals for?

6. Proteins.

7. What are proteins for?

8. What are carbohydrates.

9. Diseases, symptoms and contagion.

10. Cells.

11. What are cells for?

12. Human body.

13. Part of the human body and its functions.

14. Part of the body, main organs and systems.

15. The internal organs of the human body.

16. Bodybuilding is a complementary sport.

17. Benefits of bodybuilding.

18. Alternative therapies, health for the body and mind.

19. Minerals, appearance and types of minerals.

20. Plant kingdom.

21. Mineral kingdom.

22. The classification of minerals.

23. Kingdom plantae.

24. What are mineral salts for?

25. What are plant enzymes for?

26. Natural remedies against autoimmune diseases.

27. Everything about autoimmune diseases.

28. What is an atom.

29. Chemical elements.

30. Chemical elements and their functions.

31. Physiology.

32. Vital functions.

33. Human vital functions.

34. Genes.

35. What is chemistry.

36. What is biochemistry.

37. What is alchemy.

38. The secret of alchemy.

39. What is metaphysics.

40. Body, soul and spirit.

41. Homogeneous.

42. What is physics.

43. What is quantum physics.

44. The five kingdoms of living beings.

45. Kingdoms of the living world.

46. ​​7 senses of the human body.

47. 7 main chakras of living beings.

48. The power of the human mind.

49. What is yoga?

50. Fruits and their vitamins.

51. Coconut water and benefits.

52. Psychology.

53. Photos.

54. Acknowledgments.

THE THEOSOPHY OF MYSTERIES ASSUMPTIONS OF LIFE AND NATURE, DIVINITY AND THE ORIGIN AND PURPOSE OF THE UNIVERSE

I would like to show you this fantastic text that I wrote a book created and developed by myself and that I did so with great honor and satisfaction, which served as support for me to get to know the body, spirit and soul that we were looking for here for an existence in life that I keep as security of my life against illnesses and diseases that the world is not in touch with the reality of life itself and I want you to feel the nobility of my studies on life behind the happiness of living and being happy that are wrapped up in these countless pages theoretically by great masters of science and with great curiosity of my wisdom that rises alongside my book that enters like an emanation of light on life and its contexts of life and being happy in full health.

I want to firmly highlight and indicate to readers that this compendium created and created by me is an extraordinary memory that I keep with love and affection so that everyone can read and understand with extraordinary firmness that the life within us is something very precious for human beings and children of God and know how to understand all the details narrated in these small sheets that were born from a feeling and thought that life is like an eternal box to never stop playing the same song or the same life that is a constant impulse throughout life .

I simply want to come to a conclusion that we can understand among all the relationships of life and constructions of both death and living.

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that applies a theosophy of the presumed mysteries of life and nature, of divinity and the origin and purpose of the universe that makes us think gracefully under a more composite state in relation to the body as a composite set of artifacts more constructed under a formality of all the existences of living that remind me through clairvoyance of the continuous birth of the living being and that nature has always consecrated to it as a dilemma that man was born to die and born to live that makes me highlight a good reference, well disguised and specified under a short story of theosophy that I leave under my achievements and main study that involves a more demonstrative and realistic frontier of the human being under the nature of living and everything that makes up life in its existence as a more expressive and inquisitive context to my point of view that I decipher here in this last term and I want to thank all my dear and illustrious friends and may life tell us how long we will have to prove our lives and existences.

I simply want to say that life is the sister of death as death is the sister of life and there is probably a term of construction in which we are simply walking down a path that we should look for real evidence of the existence of life in mortals than in most cases we consider building and evolving the human being who has undergone a metamorphosis that would actually be the opposite of death by a fatality from which we see life distracted in a context of witnessing its existence and affection to cross a more different side. What we casually seek certainty about the uncertainties that naturally must have a construction that puts everything in harmony and a deconstruction that puts everything in total dissatisfaction that we call the return time that it is written in the Bible that God created the sky and the sea and men have built an excellent source of your relationships with the life that has always arisen in you in the context of revelation and demonstration of realities day after day for a discrepancy of time and three days everything becomes the target of circumstances of love and hate in which man can understand their evolution and origin needs. It completed the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and, as the Holy Bible says, they committed destruction by eating from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized in a metamorphosis in which man is a god from the beginning that the gods built Mount Olympus and that made the human being understand their desires and thoughts, for life and death should be like a dream of entry and exit to where the world would be found in possession of pleasure and will and everyone would enjoy all the necessities that life and its relativity between human beings and animals would be established a domain that would actually stop everything, stop to their abilities, rations, complications, understandings and actions in which man could establish a conduct or doctrine between tribes and gangs who created the world and understood what life taught and understood about death

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and life that he should simply establish a logic of remaining intact in his nature more than likely uncertainties, more than surmountable by being formalized into a primate man between a duel with dinosaurs until the contemporary era that established an identity more similar to deconstructions and constructions of life leaving the earth as a creative emanation of a phenomenal existence of the living being that became man, woman and animals were preserved in all the ways that presumably even man could have come from the ape like primitive man and that the world originated from a great explosion caused by an asteroid in which it destroyed the face of the earth and everything started from nothing as it is also said that the world originated from a great explosion in which the universe was densely hot and that everything was formalized particles and atoms in which life on earth was formed establishing humans and animals in which the word of God originates as an emanation of events from a bond that we can simply say we were constructed and formalized in an alchemy more focused on absinthe, as the essence would have taken the form of a serpent as the world improved within a natural harmonization of nature between four building elements that emanate life in air, water, earth and fire, in which their genes can formalize an atom and a logic in which matter would be part of everything and in all smallest fraction of an element which atomic particles would be or would be in a small time interval in which they would form into an atomic body called an atom between time and space, the universe would become increasingly between spaces leaving everything and creating everything related to an escape of planetary life and its output and input devices as creation and destruction in which god would be a homogeneous factor of the universe and omnipotent of all things in which they were created. Context of construction and destruction with god among the various questions of clairvoyance between life as light, as emanation of life and hate as destruction of death, also known as the devil representing the flames, the eternal fire of god emanated by the devil who is the god himself in the form of light in the representation of life that presumably never disappeared and always resurrected in all things paradise that would be a starting point for all souls in which we formalize ourselves as heaven and hell and would be the dark side of life that symbolizes the devil will take souls to purgatory as a death penalty and the sin of life and death and the world would not like another course of action to be established, but only heaven and hell as a representation of life and death , then one god as there was only one god and the devil who in two ways would establish one as the world also originated as a great explosion that emits and escapes while everything was formed and formalized leaving the earth a place to live and die in which two spheres show us further that the greatest sin is not believing in God and salvation would be believing in God, the Almighty Creator of heaven and earth in the

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which life has always revealed to us its mysteries between the depths of heaven and Earth, of the earth that has always rebelled for various purposes of light and darkness and life has become something superlative over a prodigal nature that has always formalized us for its existence and subsistence in which they are known as good and bad becoming all in light and dark, life becomes something like a circle in which we live and die as the construction and destruction of life by the evil of death which is dark and cold as life would be more subtle because it is light, it is white and it concerns the alchemy of a phenomenal existence in which we can symbolize its capacity, complicity and construction in an emanation of time and space in which the universe can always expand its vibrating flows and buds and if it expands by itself being dense and destroying itself, becoming increasingly denser than an atmosphere hotter than the earth that forms in all aspects a forgotten space where hours, minutes and seconds are added together in a smaller fraction of time formed in atoms and which gives more spatiality to its dimensions. I mean that life is the sister of death since death is the sister of life that probably existed and a constructive term that we are simply following a path that we must seek real evidence of the existence of life in mortals who in the most considered way of constructing, destroy and evolve the human being has undergone a metamorphosis that would actually be the opposite of death, a fatality in which we see life distracted in a context of testimony of its existence and affection to cross a more different side that we casually seek certainty about the uncertainties that naturally they must have a construction that puts everything into harmony and deconstruction that puts everything into total behavior that we call the round trip time in which we can certainly live and certainly prevail in real life or die.

And with a simple idea I want to testify to everything that God has made as perhaps a fabulous construction calendar and that everything can be contained in a magic circle that everyone has always followed as a source, circuit or energy, world and that we can find the paradise of failures and dreamers and everything is in a context and that everything that God created also did in relation to its relevance, pulsations and extensions in which we cannot doubt the hidden aspects and that everything and everything was always in his image as God always created you because it was God who created you.

We find a series of words above a term that in my philosophy everything that God creates with love is constructed with a feeling about the living nature of a being who would be more eager to understand it because in it everything is clearer. The sunlight that shows us the positive side of life and the beautiful things that we cling to and that we simply don't cling to because it is made of hate that is above all emptiness that breaks the human inability to be happy or love someone in life that is simply not enlightened before God because they have falls of a divine nature that cannot be compared to the true being that God

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created and created in all things in paradise that we could not deceive him with the negative uncertainties that isolate the life of God. Soft light before God who is in all things deep and at altitudes that one day we will be able to understand his space and his time in our realities that are not so extensive as there is no light in our way of thinking that dominates any unexpected feelings in life, we may not have understood love and its existence in our lives because in everything God did he created the paradise of the failed and ashamed that he turned away from evil for the truth that cannot remain silent, invisible over everything that God created in the land of stubborn and uncertain men of compassion and controversial about an unfaithful desire that perhaps a child would humanly bring that love to be more alive in the electricity that consoles our thoughts and makes us believe that the world is perfect and that we can still be happy and that perhaps we can remain constructively intact under the pretexts of God that have made us enlightened by the fury of love of the teachings that love us and make us love what is beautiful to see and feel pleasure because life would simply be a sounding board where your rhythm can melody us with all the positive forms and forces of life that never bend running through the shadows that open behind the light of day trying to forget the fear of darkness that afflicts the innocent people they still need to know the world as it is beautiful and perfect because God made you in every aspect that has not been destroyed and that you are comfortable with the truth of loves that have not been absorbed by God or that any anonymity could have been prescribed by the word of God as they say angels are more cautious about staying alive and with the transformation of God's existence and mortals who are consumed by madness, farce, emotional delusion that have angered the minds of men who have not yet understood to simplify their love of life how to love God for all the inevitable things and together we can always unite because it was God who created you and the stars of life. Heaven as perhaps an anger that one day we can be grateful and ask you to be faithful to it like a straight arrow, without deviation that cannot be our irrepressible nature in the world that can and does become an illusion for the weakest without love that can feel its effect of the flower of paradise that we will always find what we are looking for because we simply learn to love and hate ourselves and consolidate in all aspects of being happy for many years in which life is pulsating and creative of some devices that remain and that one day we will understand its pleasures and all that God has created because we are children of God and we experience the light of life in our eyes and faces that show us how beautiful we are and strengthen ourselves in our memories that testify our love for life as we pacify on the material planes the seeds that we simply keep in the soul of our thoughts that are completed in the forms and achievements that we achieve

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in life as a state of time on occasion of thanksgiving that we learn to appreciate life that afflicts the absurdity of youth and we see that everything that God created would be perfect because we are similar to God and in my philosophy I just want to say that if it was God who made us are innate or homogeneous that through the anonymity of hidden affections we could complete ourselves with the love he made us because we would not be alive to be happy with some inferior indifference of his nature that remains for how long without any unfavorable expression to the only affection that made us greater than we are like love that we may not be able to say of the no or nothing inferior in another that is simplified in the divine theory that everything God created was with love and we learn from life less or more with its artifacts to evaluate the that God made because we would not be so small and great in the hand of God who completed us in his image and love that we can never be small less in all the hidden affections that trigger the pure realistic compassion of living, loving and being happy because in a few years or perhaps millennia from the depths of our souls, we will someday find ourselves free from hell in paradise.

Life and death would certainly be brothers of a contradiction in which we simplify everything that life formalizes for us, perhaps in which everything can have deaths as if there were life in which there is also life and there is also death that we do not want and simply say that the world was created by construction in representation of good with light, love and life, just as the world was destroyed by deconstruction in representation of evil with darkness hate and death left life and death as a setback for a return emanation in which God can be contained and indivisible between the two terms classified as life and death and just as an explanation of life and death it would also be logical for life to be love and death to be hate and love and hate are more than a term that is part of life.

Everything is in perfect union and throughout existence it does not stop its rhythm that makes us say that we are alive today and maybe tomorrow we would die because of something generated by the destiny traced by death that in life continues to tirelessly destroy different people from different places in the world. A sum of points that life will not connect with the same sum that life must create, all being in a natural equality in which we assume our commitments to the realities of life and we will not be afraid of the negative death that walks and undoes everything in life in which God creates in a sovereign equality of one day each thing gathers to the same dust for a while longer to begin with any other life.

Whether you are poor or rich you will not distinguish between this problem that we must be aware of and if we deal with a mission of peace, health and love towards our neighbors who accompany every second of our lives and every day as we accompany and learn to preserve the environment. Our lives and yes, we will always be alive with our families, relatives

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and friendly people who love us as much as we do and we will feel their passing forever when their time comes and we will pay our charities with gratitude and love for their journey to paradise, whatever this heaven or hell may be and may God protect them at all the evil.

Life with its vital white color shows us a paradise full of love and health in which we laugh and cry with joy and learn to love and hate everything for a sentimental notion of our life and death with its lifeless black color shows us a dark place where you go to the other side of life and we can even meet and it's all about the border measurements where is heaven and hell and maybe one day we can meet and be happy together somewhere and talk about the past and These memories remain in our mind and we will want to fulfill some fantasy even if they have passed and we will be able to find it and make it a matter of love and friendship.

I know that it is very difficult to understand life and death because they are sisters and they have an inequality in an outline of life to persist with their rhythms among human beings and they always leave us curious and surprised with their changes in our paths that are short by long time so that one day we can wash our souls and forgive our mistakes until the angels reach God in the heavenly paradise and everyone is prepared.

I just don't believe in death because I think nothing in this world dies because it's just the beginning of another life where we can say that we are free and have no imperfections in our lives and that life will better show us how we are outside of our world and could be even better in the way we identify with our souls and everything will be in perfect harmony and the fear of death will no longer exist and we will not feel any imperfection as opposed to death which will simply be life in the same way, the pulsating universe always gives life and to the at the same time destroys them all into a smaller fraction of the best atom and Together we can think that one day our lives will not be lost and we will be masters of an immortal time and that we will always remain alive for a long time. This is on a supernatural level and we can clearly say that we can make life a combination of things that we may not be able to do here and that we are totally free.

I love life as much as life loves me and are always in perfect harmony with me and heaven could one day be our home, we will live an eternal life and we can complete our understandings that can take us to the heavens or the universe!

It is as you say that in life there are two factors that destroy us with the benign and evil force that nature offers us and establish in us a similarity with the impulses created by a certain existence as a regression of light and darkness. Those who need us and make us suffer throughout their lives an inequality of life that afflicts man in his conscious and

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unconscious that in simple circumstances your will, desire, love and hate do not have affective normality of moral character and personal conduct that is socialized on its emotional effects that make you live in accordance with your life or delicate human nature that always seeks an answer in time that everything lasts for a fraction of a second due to the difficult occasion of destinies that compromise us by factors incomparable to the hard and real reality of our lives.

In a broad perspective it is said that love is the key to the well-being of relationships which by nature is more friendly and makes us understand how we are friends and everyone is perfect for the equality of good that is present in a benevolent circle that gives us will show how much we will always have and will always prosper with an evolutionary and future discipline at a stage in which we will never forget our values ​​and compassion for our lives, always strengthened by false human bonds created by a precarious society and suffering with the bankrupt, attributes and related to life that make us die and suffer misery, failure and madness because of the useless fact of good and evil that are two questionable factors that fold into a vast occasion and personal relationships that make us react in a mind that is already born empowered and exhausted by the darkness negative light of life against the positive light of life which is the good of love transferred from the fantasies and illusions of material experience into the full life of a being who feels and holds in mind all the personal and moral brotherhood of a world characterized by good and evil which we call love and hate which brings happiness and emotional hell realized by relationships and projections of life which is the existence of light which means love for others and death which is the existence of darkness which means hatred for others which goes through all through a formality of life on earth and in the universe in an impulse of construction and destruction that ultimately created a moral purpose that served our souls on earth and in heaven as a processor excites the vibration of all circumstances generated and created by all occasions of life in a positive and negative process that in everything and with everything represented love transformed into hate and they always try to love so much as to hate if they represent hate transformed and in love with evil that they also always tried to hate love so much representing transformed love in hatred for the good that they never failed to understand and never understand the true case and possibility of nature itself, of existence and non-existence that complete life between two comparable and incomparable desires that you call spaced from a base and from a relationship of nature on earth and in heaven and in science there are no limits and the sciences are for everything that has ever shown us the most complex true identity of an infinite parallel of a great understanding of the combat reaction built and destroyed by an evolutionary reality complete of life as a daily way of being the lower plexus to the higher that has always joined together to give the best suggestion and lifestyle

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to a human being.

In the male name, love means strong affection for another person, born from blood ties or social relationships. Attraction based on sexual desire. In the male name, hatred means intense aversion, motivated by fear, anger or injury; heinous. The hated person or thing.

There is also heaven and hell which in religiosity are two representations of two paths and spiritual planes that represent the light side of life that is good according to divine love or personal good intention that comes from within oneself, as there is the dark side of life that is evil according to demonic hatred or personal evil intent rather than comes from a negative repulsion of life that would lead nowhere. The mere circumstance of life would be weakened to the sudden failure in life clearly differentiated from the clear good intention of life which is the good that distorts the dark side of life and when that issue is not itself the dark path of evil it is hatred that causes the death itself in a simplified way, its purpose as a mental law and logical questions of life.

There are paths that reveal an infinity of moral concepts that in the recovery of life we ​​benefit from the body and soul through a constructive infinity that reminds us that we are spiritual beings who suffer these discharges of subtle energy from our souls due to uncontrolled factors that affect us. lead to the ends most inclined to react against the harsh and severe realities of life that oppress our nerves and break our fundamental consciences in a logical contraction and poorly reconstructed by various emotional declinations that make us compromise the social well-being that this offers us to see , live and understand the struggle for survival of this well informed or poorly constructed between an emotional mental plane in a biased world in which we live and learn to live and understand the best demand for love and hate that are in two perfect combinations that make it impossible for us to see the positive side which is the good of life and the dark side which is the old adopted evil of life in a fraternity not contaminated by a feeling oppressed by the circumstances generated by life itself, remaining subject to love and hate in everything.

Life is a very broad concept and allows for several definitions. It can refer to the continuous process of which living beings are part; the time between conception and death of an organism under the condition of an entity that was born and has not yet died and what makes a living being metaphysically, life is a continuous process of relationships. As simple as it may seem, it is still very difficult for scientists to clearly define life. Many philosophers try to call it a "phenomenon that animates matter." In general, an entity is traditionally considered a living being if it shows all of the following characteristics:

The name at least once during its existence, Development:

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passing through several distinct and sequential stages, from conception to death.

1. Growth: absorption and cumulative reorganization of matter from the environment; with the excretion of excess and "unwanted" products.

2. Movement: indoors (cellular dynamics), accompanied or not by movement in the environment.

3. Reproduction: ability to generate an entity similar to itself.

4. Response to stimuli: ability to "feel" and evaluate the properties of the environment and to act selectively in response to possible changes in these conditions.

5. Evolution: the ability of successive generations to gradually transform and adapt to the environment.

These criteria have their uses, but their different nature makes them unsatisfactory from more than one perspective; in fact, it is not difficult to find an example, as well as examples that require additional processing. For example, according to the above criteria, it can be said that fire has life.

Such a situation could be easily resolved by adding the requirement of spatial limitation, which is the presence of a mechanism that delimits the spatial extent of the living being, for example, the cell membrane in typical living beings. This approach solves the fire case, but it also leads to new problems, such as defining an individual in organisms such as most fungi and some herbaceous plants, and does not definitively solve the problem, as it can still be said that:

• stars are alive, for reasons still similar to those of fire.

• geodes can also be considered living beings.

• Viruses and similar things are not living beings because they do not grow and cannot reproduce outside the host cell; housing extendable to many external parasites.

If we limit ourselves to "conventional" organisms, some additional criteria can be considered in search of a more precise definition:

1. Presence of molecular components such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

2. Composition of one or more cells.

3. Maintenance of homeostasis.

4. Speciation ability.

However, even in these cases, some deadlocks would still be detected. For example, all life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, called organic chemistry. Some argue that this should be the case for all possible life forms in the universe; others describe this position as carbon chauvinism, considering, for

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For example, the possibility of silicon-based life.

Multiple configurations

Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana's definition of "life" (widely used by Lynn Margulis) is that of a water-based (self-generating) autopoietic system, lipoprotein limits, carbon metabolism, nucleic acid replication and protein regulation, a system of lower negative returns subordinated to a higher positive return. Stuart Kauffman defines it as an agent or a system of autonomous agents capable of reproducing and completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle.

Robert Pirsig's definition can be found in his book Lila: An Inquiry into Morals, as anything that maximizes its range of future possibilities, that is, anything that makes decisions that translate into the most possible futures or that keeps as many options in open.

Biochemists have defined life as a set of molecules that, in their mutual interactions, develop a self-regulatory program whose end result is the perpetuation of the same collection of molecules. A dynamic balance that, in the exchange of matter and energy with the environment, allows the reduction of entropy. There are probably more possibilities to define life, as it can be conceptualized based on the meaning attributed to "life".

Modified Descent: A Useful Feature

A useful characteristic on which to base a definition of life is that of modified offspring: the ability of a given life form to produce offspring similar to its parents, but with the possibility of some variations due to chance.

Modified offspring are sufficient by themselves to allow evolution, as long as variation between offspring gives different probabilities of survival. The study of this form of inheritance seen in nature is called genetics. In all known life forms and excluded prisons, which are not considered living beings, although viruses and viroids are included, the classification is still uncertain: the genetic material consists mainly of DNA or another common nucleic acid, RNA.

A criticism of this criterion arises when considering the code of some forms of viruses and computer programs structured through genetic programming: whether computer programs can be considered a living being, given this definition, is certainly a controversial topic.

Exceptions to the common definition

Many organisms are unable to reproduce and are still living beings, such as mules and worker ants. However, these exceptions can be taken into account by applying the definition of life in the species or in the

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level of a single gene. However, new questions about this approach are inevitable when considering specific topics such as kin selection, which provides more information about the possibility that non-reproductive individuals can nevertheless increase the dispersal of their genes and the survival of their strain.

As for the two cases where fire and stars fit the definition of life, both can be easily resolved by defining metabolism in a more biochemically precise way. In their book Fundamentals of Biochemistry, Donald and Judith Voet define metabolism as follows:

"Metabolism is the general process by which living systems acquire and use the free energy necessary to perform their various functions. They do this by combining the exoergic reactions of nutrient oxidation with the endergic processes necessary to maintain this state of life, such as the performance of mechanical work, the active transport of molecules against concentration gradients, and the biosynthesis of complex molecules."

This definition, used by most biochemists, makes it clear that fire is not alive, as it releases all the oxidative energy of its fuel in an "explosive" reaction, in the form of heat.

Viruses reproduce, flames grow, machines move, some computer programs change, evolve, and in the future will likely exhibit highly complex behaviors; however, they are not living beings by that definition. On the other hand, at the origin of life, cells with more metabolism could exist without a reproductive system. Most, however, do not consider these entities to be living beings, and generally, all five characteristics must be present for a being to be considered living.

Modern biological definition

In light of this dead end, in light of the most current definition and apart, the proposals that are not corroborated in fact know that, biologically, life is a natural phenomenon that can be described as a continuous process of metabolic chemical reactions that occur in an evolutionarily structured environment. to facilitate the occurrence and maintenance of such reactions; always produced under the direct or indirect control of a group of special molecules, deoxyribonucleic acids or simply DNA.

The presence of DNA or, in an "equivalent" way, RNA, is currently a necessary condition for the definition of a living being, however, it has still been debated whether the presence of a potentially functional form of this molecule is a sufficient condition to define -there. . The classification of viruses as alive or not is still uncertain.

Life in the religious context

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The concept of life is well known enough not to go unnoticed by religious people. It is based on the principle of life or existence of the soul (in Christian belief, being exclusive to man); in animated existence (from the Latin word anima) in chance; or the duration of the animate existence of an individual or entity.

From a Christian point of view, in the biblical case, regarding terrestrial and physical life, things that have life, in general, have the capacity for growth, metabolism, reaction to external stimuli and reproduction. The Hebrew word used in the Bible and the Greek word, the Hebrew word and the Greek term meaning "soul" are also used to refer to life, not in an abstract sense, but to life as a person or animal. Compare the words "soul" and "life" as used in the Book of Job, chapter 10, verse 1; Psalms, chapter 66, verse 9; Book of Proverbs, chapter 3, verse 22. According to the Bible, vegetation has life, operating in it the principle of life, but not life as a soul. Life, in the broadest sense, applied to intelligent beings, is the perfect existence that bears the name of the soul. The concept within religious faith, however, transcends modern science and biology without any support whatsoever.

modern scientific theory that corroborates the existence of the soul. Animism has long been rejected by science in this case.

Origin of life

The origin of life raises scientific, religious and philosophical questions.

There is still no consensus model for the origin of life, but most currently accepted models are based in one way or another on the following results:

1. Plausible probiotic conditions lead to the creation of the simplest organic molecules demonstrated by the Urey-Miller experiment.

2. Phospholipids spontaneously form double layers, the basic structure of the cell membrane.

3. Processes for random production of RNA molecules can produce ribozymes capable of replicating under certain conditions.

4. The tree of life converges all known living beings into a single point of common origin.

There are many different hypotheses on the path taken by simple organic molecules to protocells and metabolism. Most possibilities tend towards the primacy of genes or the primacy of metabolism; a recent trend is to look for hybrid models that combine aspects of both approaches.

According to astronomer and astrophysicist Thomas Gold, the hot, deep biosphere theory indicates that there is clear evidence that microbial life is extremely widespread deep within the Earth's crust. According to this theory, life has been identified in several locations on the ocean floor,

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linked to primordial gas emanations. Such life does not depend on solar energy and photosynthesis as its main source of energy supply and is essentially independent of the circumstances on the Earth's surface. Its energy supply comes from chemical sources, due to ascending fluids from deeper levels in the Earth. The single-celled beings that live in such environments are now classified in their Superkingdom, the Arcaea, and may well protect the mechanisms that gave rise to the first living things.

According to theory, in mass and volume this deep biosphere could be comparable to all surface life. Such microbial life could, in principle, explain the presence of biological molecules in all the carbonaceous materials of the crust, and, considering that these materials come entirely from biological deposits accumulated on the surface, it would therefore not necessarily be valid.

Known life in general can also be found within the planetary bodies of our Solar System or even in isolated objects that roam interstellar space; as many of them have suitable conditions for this to happen like those found in certain situations here on earth, while still constituting totally inhospitable environments on their surface for almost all living beings. It can also be speculated that the only alternative is for life to be widely distributed in the universe, inhabiting everything from planetary bodies in our solar system to other stellar systems. Today, it is known that our periodic table is responsible for describing all the chemistry of the universe.

Life as we know it is based on carbon and water and energy is normally obtained by the presence of oxygen, either free in the air or released by the reduction of compounds such as oxides, sulfates and others. Carbon sources are related to primordial hydrocarbons, in particular methane. These primordial substances are widely distributed in the universe and, considering that the processes that originated them occurred only here on Earth, for many, in these terms, they are at least a lot of pretension. An extension of this topic leads us to the panspermia hypothesis.

However, beyond speculation, in fact, however, life as it was almost certainly born and certainly evolves on Earth. According to physicist Marcelo Gleiser in his book "Imperfect Creation", life appeared on Earth around 4 billion years ago. The oldest fossil record of life dates back to stromatolites formed in the Paleoarchean era of the Archean Aeon, about 3.430 billion years ago.

Nature, in its broadest sense, is equivalent to the "natural world" or "physical universe". The term "nature" refers to the phenomena of the physical world and also to life in general. It generally does not include man-made objects.

The word "nature" derives from the Latin word nature, which means

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"essential quality, innate disposition, course of things, and the universe itself." Nature is the Latin translation of the Greek word physis, which in its original meaning refers to the innate way in which plants and animals grow spontaneously. The concept of nature as a whole - the physical universe - is a newer concept that has become increasingly widely used with the development of the modern scientific method in recent centuries. Within the various current uses of this word, "nature" can refer to the general domain of different types of living beings, such as plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects - the way in which different particular types of things and their spontaneous changes, as well as the climate, the Earth's geology and the matter and energy that these beings possess. It is often considered a "natural environment, wild animals, rocks, forests, beaches and, in general, all things that have not been substantially modified by man or that persist despite human intervention. This more traditional concept of natural things implies a distinction between natural and artificial, the latter understood as something created by a mind or consciousness.

Etymology

Latin, nature, comp. from the natus theme, p.pass. de Nascere = Nascere and Urus = Suffix of the future participle of Oritur = Raise, generate, the force that generates.

What emerges, what occurs from birth. What is and does by birth, according to universal laws applied to a specific context. Order or system of laws that precede the existence of things and the succession of beings. The set of all beings that make up the universe. Essence and intrinsic quality of a being. Also understood as "quality, nature, genius, type, character" of a being.

Life

A duck with her cubs

Although there is no universal consensus on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by the following factors or functions: organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction, living beings (plant kingdoms) ( animals, fungi, protists, archaea and bacteria) have these properties in common: they are made up of cells that have a complex organization based on water and carbon metabolism and have the capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce. Therefore, an entity that satisfies these properties is considered alive.

The biosphere is the part of the outermost layer of planet Earth, including air, land, surface rocks and water, and it is in this part that life evolved and where biotic processes are made and transformed. From a very broad view of geophysics, the biosphere is the global ecological system that integrates all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air). At the moment,

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it is estimated that the Earth contains around 75 billion tons (7.5 kg x 1013) of biomass, present in various biosphere environments. About nine-tenths of Earth's total biomass is plant life, on which animal life depends for survival. To date, more than 2 million species of plants and animals have been identified, and estimates of the actual number of extant species range from a few million to a maximum of 50 million species. The number of existing species varies constantly, as new ones appear and others cease to exist in a continuous dynamic. Currently, the total number of species is experiencing a rapid decline.

I simply want to say that life is the sister of death since death is the sister of life; there is probably a construction term in which we are simply walking along a path that we must look for real evidence of the existence of life in mortals than in most cases we consider to build, destroy and evolve the human being who has undergone a metamorphosis that would actually be the opposite of death by a fatality from which we see life distracted in a context of testimony of its existence and affection to cross a more different side which we casually seek certainty about the uncertainties that naturally must have a construction that puts everything in harmony and a deconstruction that put everything in total discontent which we call the return time which is written in the Bible that God created the sky and the sea and men built an excellent source of their relationships with life that has always arisen in you in the context of revelation and demonstration of realities day after day that for a discrepancy of time and three days everything becomes the target of circumstances of love and hate in which man can understand his needs for evolution and origin. It completed the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and as the Holy Bible says they committed a perdition by eating from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized in a metamorphosis in which man is a god from the beginning that the gods built Mount Olympus and that made the human being understand their desires and thoughts, for life and death should be like a dream of entry and exit to where the world would be found in possession of pleasure and will and everyone would enjoy all the necessities that life and its relativity, if between human beings and animals, a dominion were established that would actually stop and in everything, stop at their abilities, rations, complications, understandings and actions in which man could establish a conduct or doctrine among tribes and gangs that formed the world and understand they gave what life is.

He taught and understood about death and life that simply should establish a logic of remaining intact in its more than likely nature, uncertainties more than overcome by being formalized in a primate man between a duel with dinosaurs until the contemporary era that established a identity more similar to deconstructions and

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constructions of life leaving the earth as a creative emanation of a phenomenal existence of the living being that became man, woman and animals were preserved in all modalities that presumably also man could have come from the monkey as primitive man and that the world originated of a great explosion caused by an asteroid in which it destroyed the face of the earth and everything started from nothing, as it is also said that the world originated from a great explosion in which the universe was densely hot and that everything was formalized atoms into atoms in that life was formed on earth, establishing animal and animal human beings in which the word of god was born as an emanation of events from a bond that we can simply say we were constructed and formalized in an alchemy more focused on absinthe, as the essence would have the form of a snake as the world improved within a natural harmonization of nature between four constructive elements that emanate life in air, water, earth and fire, in which their genes can formalize us into an atom and a logic in which matter would be part of everything and in a smaller fraction of an element in which atomic particles would be or would be in a small interval of time in which they would form into an atomic body called an atom between time and space, the universe would always become more between spaces, leaving everything and creating everything in an escape from planetary life and its output and input devices as creation and destruction, in which god would be a homogeneous factor of the universe and/or omnipotent of all the things in which they were created in a context of construction and destruction, being god among the various questions of clairvoyance between life as light, as the emanation of life and hate as the destruction of death, also known as the devil representing the flame, the eternal fire of God emanated by the devil who it is god himself in the form of light, who represents the life that presumably never disappeared and always the things of paradise that would be a starting point for all souls in which we formalize how heaven and hell would be the dark side of life, symbolizing the devil in which would take the lamas to purgatory as a death penalty and sin over life and death and the world would have established no other conduct, but heaven and hell as a representation of life and death between a single god, for there was only one god and the devil who, in two forms, would have established one as the world was also born as a god An explosion that spreads and enters the escapes as everything was formed and formalized, leaving the Earth a place to live and to die where the two spheres show us yet another greater sin and do not believe in God and salvation would be to believe in God, the Almighty Creator of the heavens and the earth in which life has always revealed its mysteries to us between the depths of heaven and of the earth that has always rebelled against various purposes of light and darkness with life being something superlative a prodigious nature that has always formalized us by its existence and subsistence, in which they are known as good and bad, making it

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if all in the light and in the dark with life it becomes something like a circle in which we can live and die like the construction and destruction of life because of death which is dark and cold when life would be more subtle because it is light and white and everything is related to an alchemy of a phenomenal existence in which we can symbolize your capacity, complicity and construction in an emanation of time and space, as the universe can always expand its vibratory and pulsating flows and expands being subtle and destroying itself always being dense in an atmosphere hotter than Earth that is formed in all aspects, a forgotten space in which hours, minutes and seconds are added together in a smaller fraction of time, forming atoms and giving more and more space to their dimensions. I mean life is mother's sister or like death is life's sister, there is probably a term of construction that we are simply walking down a path where we must look for real evidence of the existence of life in mortals than in the most considered way of construction, construction and evolution that l the human being has undergone a metamorphosis that would actually be the opposite of dying from a fatality from which we see life distracted in a context of testimony of its existence and affection to cross a more different side, which we casually seek certainties about the uncertainties that naturally must have a construction that puts everything in harmony and a deconstruction that puts everything in harmony total unpleasantness that we call return time where we can certainly live and certainly prevail over real life.

Perhaps we are living or going through a story that today we can fully understand its most complete value that distinguishes us from perceiving perhaps between the love that makes us hate and the love for a feeling that we can try and that our feelings go unnoticed to the love that actually makes us hate a woman with who still predominate our wills in certain things that we dream about and we think that there is little or more performance between our wills that we are learning today to conquer life and perhaps we are still precarious in our will to achieve something that gives us pleasure in certain circumstances in that we say well that we can dominate something that favors us between perhaps our will and that there can be indifference between the love of a woman who simply makes us love her existence better than we do and that we go unnoticed an undue desire to prevail over a duel that, in the past, likes himself, says the ancients called and cost between certain forms of I love and die for love between struggle and despair to find a real explanation between the achievement of facing a woman and between his prejudices and organization eyes that perhaps we can say that everyone was attracted by the fury of overwhelming desire that makes us support that everyone fell together in that moment when we are attracted by the will and beauty of a real woman even if we are different in relation to our love that we sigh with hate because we suspect from the

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truth that we want to contain only among them in the midst of a catastrophic world and prevent us from suffering a little social and convivial damage, which perhaps is teaching us to find a more desirable response to our courage that one day we can understand the sentimental force of a woman who shows us and makes us enjoy our shortcomings without feeling pain because we are among the desires that the love of a woman who makes us love with body and soul and who would simply take us to the soft and incomparable paradise that would hold our hearts for strength, this would change biologically in relation to our organic functions that would only enter those between the two things that would seem like a paradise would fill our voids more than sentimentally like a cure that makes man groan without feeling pain as an expression of healing for love in the midst to a desire that one day we can understand about love, it is enough that nothing in this world covers us between certain fantasies that make us fulfill our desires that we always evaluate a woman and her predominant aspects as reflections of an adventurous life that makes us know certain paths that keep us from our consciousness that society will always end, is discriminated among poor women dismissed by uncertain men who can still improve a real woman more than ever, never say goodbye to your fun because they are among many undesirable people, even that they are all equal and show us their value that only makes us groan. without feeling pain and that we can see and see what their faces mean to us, inside the soul like an emotional fluid that we lack, it makes us darken and we fall between her feminine eyes while we feel attracted to her nature and her physical beauty that we will never forget and we will leave behind a margin in which we will one day be able to understand its greatness. Motif between a desire for love that makes us moan with this desire in a feminist aspect in which it makes us moan without feeling pain.

I want to talk about a past that dominates us in a context that simplifies love for the magnificent pleasure of a woman in which we tell several stories even in songs in which the exuberant and mischievous man is not limited to the pleasure of a woman in which his hatred becomes frightening , as it shows that your emotions are under the spell of preserving your love that perhaps we can say that we are learning to live and love again with an effect that makes us feel torn between emotional environments in which almost all of this makes us die over the domains of life in which we take as the key to existence the pure beauty and delicacy of a beautiful woman who may not have pleasure and who has transformed herself into a resistance of love and pleasure in which pleasure would be justified by a classification in which we assume free inability to a charm that we can fantasize about certain people who can only make us gain what we are looking for and that this thing can match us and what it does for us was understand and truly its value from the depths of the soul in which it has transcended us to a process in which we can remove the true feeling of pain, no matter how much we are not combined in the same existence and that everything will lead us to the pleasure in which we enjoy this honest fraction of our desires without feeling pain as an expression of that song that the woman has on her face two shiny, because reflects us as a soul and calls out our desires and that we can enjoy this paradise that we dispense with everything in life now, when we can say that we make love and leave behind the setbacks that rub us in life and enjoy the pleasure of the flesh without feeling pain and we will remain together in two faces that can unite forever in life.

It all begins with a confrontation between the Greeks and Trojans by Elena, Menelaus' wife, who tells the story of a hobby horse that ended a ten-year war. New woman. Beautiful and capricious, it makes a man moan without feeling pain.

Alexander, inhumane figure, founder of the famous Alexandria, conquered Greece and destroyed almost the entire Theban population, Roxana's attractive beauty dominated the greatest conqueror and after winning he was the winner and gave himself up to pay more than the beautiful young, young woman, beautiful and affectionate makes the man moan without feeling pain, the woman has two faces when two years of her destinies who does not like the female smile does not know the poetry of Cervantes, the courage of the great navigators in front of her to the sky under her care, If it weren't for the flower of Maus, the story would be a lie, a beautiful and affectionate young woman makes a man moan without feeling pain, Virgulino Ferreira the Lampião, a brigand from the jungles of the northeast without fear of danger or ruin, he was the king of the cangaço of the backlands but the other day he felt attractive love in his heart, the mulatto from the land of the condor dominated a dangerous beast, a beautiful and affectionate young woman makes a man moan without feeling pain. Being an exuberant and mischievous man is not restricted to the pleasure of a woman in which her hatred becomes frightening, as it shows that her emotions are under the spell of preserving her love that perhaps we can say that we are learning to live and live. Loving again in an effect that makes us feel divided between emotional environments in which almost everything makes us die in the realms of life in which we take as the key to existence the pure beauty and delicacy of a beautiful woman who can have no pleasure and that everything has changed with regard to the endurance of love and pleasure, in which enjoyment would be justified by a classification in which we suppose to be free from disability in a charm that we can fantasize about certain people who can simply make us gain what we seek and that this thing can equal us and this makes us truly understand its value from the depths of the soul in which it has transcended us in a process in which we can remove the true detachments of pain, no matter how united we are in the same existence and that everything will lead us to the pleasure in which this honest fraction we enjoy our desires without feeling pain as an expression of this song that the woman has on her face two brights to reflect as a soul and call our will and may we enjoy this paradise that we give up everything in life in that moment when we can say that we make love and leave the setbacks that rub us in life and enjoy the pleasure of the flesh without trying pain and we will remain together in two faces that can meet eternally in life. I simply want to say that life is the sister of death since death is the sister of life; There is probably a construction term in which we are simply walking down a path in which we must look for real evidence of the existence of life in mortals than in most cases. Considered to build, destroy and evolve, the human being has undergone a metamorphosis that would be the opposite of dying from a fatality that sees life distracted in a context of witnessing its existence and affection to cross a more different side that we seek casually. Surplus of certainties, uncertainties that naturally must have a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total dissatisfaction, which we call the time of return, which is written in the Bible that God created the sky and the sea and men built a source very well with regard to its relationships with life that are always emanated by us in a context of revelation and showing us the realities of the day in which due to lack of time and three days everything becomes the target of circumstances of love and hatred in which man can understand and understand his needs for evolution and origin that have completed him since the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and, as the Holy Bible says and committed a perdition to eat from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized in a metamorphosis in which man is a god from the beginning that the gods built Mount Olympus and that made human beings understand their desires and thoughts how life and death should be as a dream of entry and exit in which we would find in the world a set of religious doctrines of a syncretic, mystical and initiative nature, possibly added to philosophical reflections that seek the knowledge of divinity to achieve the spiritual elevation of man, certainly good in his life.

We really need to disseminate a simple idea in which man can reveal to us what we are and where we are going and that space would be a place to make us think and understand about various atomic aspects which in turn made us more physical among various ideas that can remake ourselves on a great variety supposedly equivalent to the elements that make us up and their particularities that they reserve for us in a nucleus called the human body so that we can simply understand their dynamics and organic functions that are exposed on the body, spirit and soul and we will decipher this question that by a contradictory effect we can accept its dynamics that can vary on the dense material body and the subtle spiritual body that we are going to prescribe as a lesson that there is a science that makes us understand called anthropology which is simply the science that is dedicated to the study of human species in its entirety, taking into account its origin, development (physical, social, cultural),

For certain circumstances I want to talk seriously about a setback in which we can understand the development of the organism's relativity as diverse functions that theoretically I describe here and place in physics as an observational work in which we can distinguish a great classification in which in metaphysics we obtain great proofs scientific under any assumption in which we will show a list of artifacts well explain under the human body and its artifacts and certain attributes related to the great development of biotechnics in reactions of all transformations between organic and functional functions of the organism as a synthesis of various compositions and combinations of the metabolic system.

For a long abbreviation, I want to talk first about the psychological part that affects the mental psyche in a relativity with different parameters that weaken to a chemical process due to certain attributions of the mind through a chained impulse that a person can show a wide variety of behavior weakened person who may be precariously depressed due to a nervous impulse and exhaustion that makes it difficult for him and makes him sensitive to the normal behavior of his emotions due to any plots such as depression due to a simple suffering that he conceived in the face of a situation of distress that he struggles with his emotions and turns into anguish that makes him, perhaps due to a mismatch, enter a state of deflowering act and in which he consoles himself under a self-control of reacting to various submissions that makes him sing, speak meaningless things so that we can know that our meanings can vary, both positive and negative, in which they favor behavior as a dispersion of energies composed under a discipline that cannot be well related to normal conduct due to the habit of exercising certain doctrines and functions specific to the organism when it is itself depressed, dissatisfied with the unnecessary maturation of the will that can give us good tastes as the enjoyment of normality that we justify by the practice that can be possessed of great loads and exercise of euphoria due to a wide variety of proteins that favor good mental calcifications under a measure. Calcium is important for several vital functions such as proper muscle contraction, regulated heartbeat and low cholesterol levels and it is important to also ingest calcium in adulthood, as we need this mineral to prevent osteoporosis, a disease that manifests itself in old age. I believe that we have to trigger several appropriations within our nervous systems because I believe that we need a very large source of proteins under all organic defenses so as not to solidify the mental compound that we present here as a wide variety of chemical formulations that complete our our systems, both nervous and physical, and the mind can be a very essential organ and composed of several chemical formulations that have an effect on the organism and the body because the mind is the one who controls the body and the brain is the physical part, that is, it is a organ found in the cranial cavity that represents a large number of neurons (nervous system cells). The mind represents the immaterial and functional part of this organ. And we can clearly understand its great and variable functions in the mental and physical behavior of the human being, who becomes weak when there is no formality well exercised and composed of his emotions due to the baggage that makes him move through all the measures and reactions with the life that can be distracted by the uncertainties of maturing that in the sum of the tonality we can preserve ourselves in front of a firmament well attributed to society and realistic life that we suppose destined us for various radical purposes as we venture under a great trajectory and measures of gains or losses that we may necessarily obstruct and weaken iting with the nonsense of everyday life and all reactions that may favor us to failure and victory due to certain occasions and social attributes that in others privilege and enthusiasm for life and thus relate to celebratory functions as a vehicle of entry and exit in which we can propel us more effectively in our reasoning and we will be aware of any normality and that abnormalities can be and have come from any nervous imbalances and thus it is the mental system and the law of gravity that align under large aspects of the living being under the regained consciousness human.

I believe in all circumstances of the human being that relativities are under a formality and construction of chemical functions that always exert great behavior under great organic weaknesses in which we can tell you that the human body is made up of thousands of cells, which they are united to form tissues, organs and systems. The various systems of the human body work together to ensure the functioning of the organism as a whole and consequently our survival.

I simply want with my words here to show a constitutional formality of a great relativity of our body with the great universe that I tell you that they look almost the same and that their functions can transfer us and transmit something relative to the central system of the body as here right now we are faced with the great universe that is in great expansion as the law of relativity clearly relates to all of nature and man would be a small universe under a great formality of cells and organs that makes us think of each organic function as the great universe that it may have originated from a great cosmic explosion and the life that is conceived in an atom was formalized in various relationships with life among the most fearless planes of human and universal nature that we also suppose these artifacts as a machine that we certainly could not have thought of as much under its relations and functions as the computer, which is classified among one or more objects very similar to the human being, which we will let this part take as a great clairvoyance of life under its subsistence, the monitor as an emanator reflected in light that in physics served to give an image that would serve as a soul, a simple vision of the electronic relativities sent by the large electronics of the PC that are completed with the motherboard that is electronically designated with four elements called processor, source, HD and memory that we can't really have a better idea of. I believe that we are fully involved with this machine that looks like us. I tell you that the source would slightly pass on a charge of energy that physically we could call it spirit and the RAM memory is represented by the storage of information necessary for execution, applications in use and for the operation of the operating system itself, this part even facilitates the processor that can access essential data more quickly. It looks like the cells of the human body that transmit information and it is from it that we remove the DNA and we can see that everything is a relationship between an electronic function that looks human and we can get to know it better up close and we conceive it under a occupational center of information as human cells, another very similar relationship called the processor which is the central processing unit of a computer (CPU), it works like a computer star, as it interacts and makes the necessary connections between all installed programs and it represents the star of the system in a very functional variety that is classified with all installed programs as an organic vehicle passing daily information to the human body system when it is a human being and this electronic element is very similar to the human machine and among Another element we know is the HD which is a hard disk or hard disk, popularly called also HD, mass memory or secondary memory, it is the part of the computer where the data is stored and when a file is stored it is not lost when the computer is turned off. machine as with RAM memory. It really belongs to the famous thought and feeling that we call the subconscious, which keeps everything we see, read and remember, which is the most faithful side of the soul and of the human being, which we use the subconscious consciousness to archive all the things that we see and keep in our minds and it would be the physics, the soul and the processor, which would be the body that functions as a computer brain that interacts and makes necessary connections between all installed programs And it represents the brain of the system in a Well functional variety that ranks with all installed programs as an organic vehicle passing daily information. And let's talk about another very important element called mrandom access memory or random access memory which is a type of memory that allows reading and writing used as primary memory in digital electronic systems that is actually part of the soul for reading as the feeling that assimilates the vision of the soul from the senses see and see to put into practice any procedure of prescribing and affirming the understanding of information that it is a function that allows reading and passing information to the machine system as the human body shows itself physically in the theory of prescribing all its dilemmas and so this would be machines a great extraordinary structure like a human being who thinks, feels and sees and so we can understand all the relationships of the living being between its functions and dynamics that show themselves under a fuller nature that completes us as the subtle universe became denser and thus life was created on earth in an imaginary construction that offers us life and varieties of relationship and function with all the existences of nature.

I believe in all circumstances of the human being that relativities are under a formality and construction of chemical functions that always exert great behavior under great organic weaknesses in which we can tell you that the human body is made up of thousands of cells, which they are united to form tissues, organs and systems. The various systems of the human body work together to ensure the functioning of the organism as a whole and consequently our survival.

I simply want with my words here to show a constitutional formality of a great relativity of our body with the great universe that I tell you that they look almost the same and that their functions can transfer us and transmit something relative to the central system of the body as here right now we are faced with the great universe that is in great expansion, how many in the law of relativity clearly relate to all of nature and man would be a small universe under a great formality of cells and organs that makes us think of each organic function as the great universe that it may have originated from a great cosmic explosion and the life that is conceived in an atom was formalized in various relationships with life among the most fearless planes of human and universal nature.

I simply want to make it very clear here to everyone that in my logic or other people there is a human relativity as a set of ideas that are formalized under a great development of various organic functions that we can dedicate ourselves to in body, spirit and soul at a given moment. in which matter would be something too morbid to be fed perhaps constantly on different proteins, vitamins and mineral salts due to certain setbacks and different illnesses and lack of chemical and organic substances that makes us transcend under such procedures of variation and function against various diseases that develop in the organic system as the metabolism makes large

transformations as it is a set of transformations that chemical substances undergo inside living organisms. The expression cellular metabolism is used in reference to the set of all chemical reactions and functions that occur in cells and I really believe that this controversial reaction could perhaps have another transformation of cellular functions when we use stem cells that have the potential to rebuild tissues damaged and thus assist in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and degenerative and heart diseases, I believe that we must pass on DNA information to analyze a cell of atoms. I believe that the human body is made up of trillions of cells composed of octillions of atoms that are structured in a highly organized way, into tissues and organs. To maintain the balance and vitality of the organism they need to talk to each other and this happens through chemical messengers called hormones such as the somatotropin hormone or somatotropin which is a protein and a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and this hormone stimulates the cell growth and reproduction in humans, other vertebrate animals and we can understand here that the stimulation in relation to the bi-organic function and see here in the genes all the particularities formed by the cells in which we can better delve deeper into the functions and their developments that would be in transformation by means of transmutation is logical in which we synthesize a more static chemistry that can develop through an acceleration in the smallest fraction of an element like an atom in a short space developing with the nuclear chemistry of the spirit that vivifies each atom between neutrons, protons and electrons that make up our cells and thus we can better understand and study the laws of relativity and functions of each element contained within about the cells in which the cells of the human body are formalized and perhaps we have to study more deeply about the cells and their functions, we should certainly see the body more scientifically using its atomic and natural elements under transmutations and transformations between particles and molecules that are formed in atoms and all of this could begin with the three kingdoms of spirit, soul and matter where we can unveil nuclear chemistry between various conceptions and transformations between certain chemical elements in function of matter as an atomic nucleus completing its magnitudes and more subtle creations on the planes of the soul in which we transform chemistry into physics, being a more preliminary study in which they will be transmuted from the subtle into the dense, forming and projecting themselves into a dense substance, passing into the liquid state as the fifth essence and forming into matter that we naturally call atomic nucleus in which all relativities can come into combination to functionally exercise their functions in the cellular study of each existence and substance that will pass into the centripetal state and electron centrifuge outputs forming each atom relatively

combined in the state of the organism's functions that metabolism is conceived as an organic and vital function for the human being.

I simply want with my words here to show a constitutional formality of a great relativity of our body with the great universe that I tell you that they look almost the same and that their functions can transfer us and transmit something relative to the central system of the body as here right now we are faced with the great universe that is in great expansion, how many in the law of relativity clearly relate to all of nature and man would be a small universe under a great formality of cells and organs that makes us think of each organic function as the great universe that it may have originated from a great cosmic explosion and the life that is conceived in an atom was formalized in various relationships with life among the most fearless planes of human and universal nature that we also suppose these artifacts as a machine that we certainly could not have thought of as much under its relations and functions as the computer, which is classified among one or more objects very similar to the human being, which we will let this part take as a great clairvoyance of life under its subsistence, the monitor as an emanator reflected in light that in physics served to give an image that would serve as a soul, a simple vision of the electronic relativities sent by the large electronics of the PC that are completed with the motherboard that is electronically designated with four elements called processor, source, HD and memory that we can't really have a better idea of. I believe that we are fully involved with this machine that looks like us. I tell you that the source would slightly pass on a charge of energy that physically we could call it spirit and the RAM memory is represented by the storage of information necessary for execution, applications in use and for the operation of the operating system itself, this part even facilitates the processor that can access essential data more quickly. It looks like the cells of the human body that transmit information and it is from it that we remove the DNA and we can see that everything is a relationship between two electronic functions that look human and we can get to know it better up close and we conceive it under a occupational center of information as human cells, another very similar relationship called the processor which is the central processing unit of a computer (CPU), it works like a computer star, as it interacts and makes the necessary connections between all installed programs and it represents the star of the system in a very functional variety that is classified with all installed programs as an organic vehicle passing daily information to the human body system when it is a human being and this electronic element is very similar to the human machine and among Another element we know is the HD which is a hard disk or hard disk, popularly called also HD, mass memory or secondary memory, it is the part of the computer where the data is stored and when a file is stored it is not lost when the computer is turned off. machine as with RAM memory. It really belongs to the famous thought and feeling that we call the subconscious, which keeps everything we see, read and remember, which is the most faithful side of the soul and of the human being, which we use the subconscious consciousness to archive all the things that we see and keep in our minds and it would be the physics, the soul and the processor, which would be the body that functions as a computer brain that interacts and makes necessary connections between all installed programs And it represents the brain of the system into a well-functional variety that ranks with all installed programs as an organic vehicle passing daily information. And let's talk about another very important element called random access memory or random access memory which is a type of memory that allows reading and writing used as primary memory in digital electronic systems that is really part of the soul for reading as the feeling that assimilates from the senses the soul's vision of seeing and seeing to put into practice any procedure of prescribing and affirming the understanding of information that is a function that allows reading and passing information to the machine system as the human body appears physically in theory to prescribe all its dilemmas and thus this machine would be a great extraordinary structure like a human being who thinks, feels and sees and thus we can understand all the relationships of the living being between its functions and dynamics that are shown under a fuller nature than It completes us as the subtle universe became denser and thus life was created on earth in an imaginary construction that offers us life and varieties of relationship and function with all the existences of nature.

I believe in all circumstances of the human being that relativities are under a formality and construction of chemical functions that always exert great behavior under great organic weaknesses in which we can tell you that the human body is made up of thousands of cells, which they are united to form tissues, organs and systems. The various systems of the human body work together to ensure the functioning of the organism as a whole and consequently our survival.

I believe that all nature and existence can be relatively combining and at the same time entering into a state of disintegration due to the universal formation of the universe which was when everything was transformed into an act of destruction to enter into a construction and metamorphosis between the laws of existence and that the universe would never stop its rhythm as its resonance would be to always play the same song and I mean that we can be chemically carried away by this song unless it contains us under such circumstances of life in everything it has and will remain marked with time and space and thus we will be half between beginning and end because the universe would always be growing with time and we only resonate with this nature that makes us grow and die by a unique and natural law that exerts totality over everyone and our relations with nature can be held in matters of seconds under various functions that we have to change for long and short intervals of time and thus we classify ourselves under the natural planes of nature and can grasp its multiplications, knowing it better so that from the subtle we become neutral and highlight the chemical mismatches of our existences and this is how the world was created and we will learn from its relativity and pulsation so that we can really walk towards life and find the true path and the most abysmal future of all existences and I want to thank everyone from the bottom of my heart for this I introduce my conceptions and studies that I observed before everyone who explained a good part of biology and the constellation of life. I want to thank everyone for this formidable work and may everyone find in this anthropology of mine the most sincere answer to any bad attributes that are not in perfect class and I wish you all the best and thank you all very much!

ABSINTHE OF THE SOUL

We live because we must conduct ourselves in certain ways to conquer our ideals that roll over our purposes like a machine repeatedly pulsing a course of flow that is designed on a nuclear chemistry that we call spirit that in the alchemical hour of a transmutation or transformation is extracted from the spirit of the thing that is magnificent and processed to an essence that passes with gross and liquid elements to form something simply attractive used for good on a ceremonial occasion or for evil on a ceremonial occasion that we will think about and heat up to 90 degrees centigrade some elements with alchemical purposes that will become something substantial that we seek as fifth pleasure, seventh sense and fifth essence to formalize us about such alchemical existences of a true alchemy that is combined between the spirit that is transferred in this heat between materials of some liquid formulation or solid to our long-awaited pleasures of doing something different that is valuable like absinthe on great transformations in the soul that we call subtle energy. Are Soul and Spirit actually different things? ... Breath also has the idea of ​​spirit or soul, because the spirit is what gives life, which is reminiscent of Genesis 2: 7: God created man from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils a breath of life, transform I walk it in a living being.

Perhaps we can versify this story because it would be more comprehensive to show that gold in dust was created from the spirit as well as the elixir of long life in a substantial liquid for certain purposes of living in a life that we simply call alchemical and we can certainly describe it and to say that in everything and for everything it can be an absinthe because it has passed between processes of alchemical transformations to a certain point where the spirit is combined as an atom that has been processed by the spirit that we call this thing, which is the spirit of thing that took heat between adsorbed elements and symbolized by an occasion of time that passed between 90º degrees centigrade that substantially we can say that it was transmuted and transformed into a pleasure and liquid heat that we call the spirit of the thing that is like an absinthe that in passage of life over the forces of nature and over a setback of heat or combustion that would symbolize alchemical love and hate in the manifestation of fire which is where the flame of the genius called salamander is located, which are also being absorbed by the undines who are geniuses of water that in everything and for everything were fluidized through certain combustions in which certain alchemical elements were made to die or live under the power of the centrifuge, which is a device or machine whose operation makes use of centrifugal acceleration obtained through the rotation of a container and which serves to separate substances of different densities; centrifuge. And we also call it Centripetal force is the resultant force that pulls the body towards the center of the trajectory in a curvilinear or circular movement. Objects that move in uniform rectilinear motion have a constant modular speed that, during combustion, certain raw or solid elements are absorbed, which are converted into water or passed and will be transformed into powder that will pass into the material state, forming gold, which is dense, leaving the subtle state in transmutation of the spirit which is nuclear chemistry which in alchemy is called or can be combined with certain elements at a certain time in a combustion and heat of 90 degrees centigrade called the spirit of the thing which is simply chemistry nuclear that will be transformed from the dense into gold called gross matter and from the subtle that will be transmuted into liquid called chemistry or alchemical element in its state of grace or reached temperature which is like an absinthe that is transformed into life or gross matter either element or liquid that substantially it was transmuted in an alchemical process called soul wormwood.

ATOM

The word atom was proposed by the Greek atomist Democritus in 400 BC, to define the smallest constituent particle of matter. However, it is known today that atoms are divisible, but the word continues to be used to designate an organized, very small structure that makes up all types of materials.

The classical atomic model is made up of the sum of scientists' ideas

Rutherford, Bohr and Chadwick, ideas that we will study in our class next. This consists of a small and heavy central nucleus where two elementary particles called protons and neutrons are contained, and a peripheral portion called the electrosphere, where electrons are fundamental particles of small mass that orbit around the nucleus. Observe the figure below.

Through the figure it can be seen that the radius of the nucleus is much smaller than the total radius of the atom, in real dimensions the radius of the atom can be around 10 thousand to 100 thousand times greater than the radius of the atomic nucleus.

The fundamental particles of the atom, called protons, electrons and neutrons, are very small, but different in mass. The mass of the proton is very close to the mass of the neutron, with the mass of the electron being approximately 1836 times smaller than that of the proton.

Protons have a positive charge, while electrons have a negative charge,

Neutrons are devoid of electrical charge.

The fundamental physical characteristics of these particles are given below in relative values.

II. Fundamental Concepts.

Atom: extremely small and organized structure that makes up all types of materials

Atomic number: represented by the symbol Z and determines the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Remember that the atom is an electrically

Neutral, meaning the number of protons and electrons are identical for a given atom.

Z = number of protons

Atomic mass number: as we already know, the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Therefore, the atomic mass number (A) is given by the sum of the number of protons and neutrons of that atom, as shown in the formula:

A = p + n or A = Z + n

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Chemical element: corresponds to a set of atoms with the same number of protons (atomic number). In nature we can find atoms with different atomic mass numbers, but with the same number of protons, these atoms are called ISOTOPES and coconstitute a chemical element.

Example:

1H3

1H2 1H3 These atoms have different masses, but they belong to the

hydrogen element.

The hydrogen isotopes represented above can be called: tritium, deuterium and protium, respectively.

Representing a chemical element:

ZEA or Z

AE

An element that has 17 protons and 18 neutrons is represented as follows:

17E35

Isotopy – Isobaria – Isotonia

In nature we can find elements or chemical species that have the same number of protons (isotopes), or the same mass number (isobars), or the same number of neutrons (isotones). Look at the schematic table:

ELEMENT Z = (n°of p+) A (n°P + n°N) N (A – Z)

Isotopy = ¹ ¹

Isobaria ¹ = ¹

Isotonia ¹ ¹ =

Examples:

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58Ce140

59Pr140 isobars

19K39

20Ca40 isotones

8O16

8O17 isotopes

Allotropy

Different simple substances that are formed by the same chemical element are defined as allotropic varieties. Always one of the allotropic varieties is the most stable and abundant in nature. The main examples are:

Cdiamond, Cgraphite* and C60 (fullerene)

O2* and O3

Pwhite and Pred *

Srombic* and Smonoclinic

* more stable allotropic form.

III - Ions.

They are atoms in electrical imbalance, that is, atoms that have gained or lost

electrons.

Examples: - + 12Ca2+ (note that the magnesium atom loses two electrons)

The magnesium atom has 12 protons and 12 electrons.

The magnesium ion has 12 protons and 10 electrons, so its charge is 2+.

7N0 + 3e-- (note that the nitrogen atom receives 3 electrons)

The nitrogen atom has 7 protons and 7 electrons.

The nitrogen ion has 7 protons and 10 electrons, so its charge is 3.

In my philosophy, everything that God creates with love is built with a feeling about the living nature of a being that would be better for you to understand because in him everything is clearer like the sunlight that is showing us on the bright side of the earth. life the beautiful things that we cling to that we simply do not touch because it is made of love that is over any void that breaks over the human inability to be happy or love someone in life that is simply not being enlightened before God because they are relapsed in nature divine that it cannot resemble the true being that God made and created over all things in paradise that we could not deceive it with the negative uncertainties that insulate life before the soft light of God that is over all deep and at altitudes that we could someday understand your space and time over our realities that are not so extensive when there is no light from our stimuli that are over any elevated feelings in life that we could not have understood your love and existence in our lives because at all God made, created the paradise of the bankrupt and embarrassed people who perverted from the evil on the truth that cannot remain silent, invisible on everything that God created on the earth of obstinate and uncertain men of controversial compassions on an unfaithful desire that perhaps a child would bring This love was humanitarian because it is more alive on the electricity that consoles our thoughts and makes us believe that the world is perfect and that we can still be happy and that perhaps we will remain constructively intact under the pretexts of God who made us illuminated by the fury of love teacher who loves us and makes us love what is good to see and feel pleasure because life would simply be a sounding board in which its rhythm can melody us about all the positive forms and forces of life that never folded over the shadows that breaks behind the light of day trying to forget the fear of darkness that plagues the innocent who are yet to know the world how beautiful and perfect it is because God made you with all the aspects that were not destroyed and may the truth of the loves that have not been absorbed by god or have any anonymity that could have been prescribed by the word of god as they say that angels are more cautious to stay alive and anate by the transformation of god's existence over mortals who are consumed by madness, farce, illusion emotional that angers the minds of men who have not yet understood how to simplify their love for life how to love God over all the things that are inevitable and together we can always unite because it was God who made you and the stars in the sky like perhaps a wrath that someday we can thank him and ask him for the favor of being faithful to him like a straight arrow without deviation that cannot be from our uncontented nature to the world that can become an illusion to the weakest without love who perhaps can feel that they have been made from the flower of paradise that unforgettably we will always find what we are looking for because we simply learn to love and hate to consolidate ourselves in all aspects of being happy for many years may life remain pulsating and creating certain artifices that one day we will understand its pleasures and everything that God created because and we are children of God and we experience the light of life in our eyes and countenances that show us how beautiful we are and we become strengthened in our memory

that we witness our love for life as we pacify on material planes the seeds that we simply keep in the soul of our thoughts that are completed on the forms and achievements that we achieve in life as a state of time on occasion of graces that we learn to value the life that plagues us with the foolishness of youth and let us see that everything that God created would be perfect because we are like God and in my philosophy I simply want to say that if it was God who made us we are innate or homogeneous that through the anonymity of hidden affections we could complete ourselves on his love that made us because we would not be alive to be happy under some inferior indifference of your nature that remains for however long without unfavorable expression to the only affection that made us greater over everything that we are similarity of love that perhaps we cannot say from the inside out in a few more let it be simplified in the divine theory that everything God created was with love and let us learn from life less or more with its artifacts to value what God did because we would not be so small and big in the hand of God who completed us in his image and love which can never be small over all the hidden affections that derail the pure realistic compassion of living, loving and being happy because in a few years or perhaps millennia from the depths of our souls we will someday find ourselves free from hell in paradise.

THE RELATIVITIES OF INVISIBLE ALCHEMY

Ladies and gentlemen, I come here with an intro to tell you about my imaginations which I explain to you as a study of an alchemy that I studied and dream that it could be more generalized to infinity itself or homogenized to the universe that I tell you that scientific magic exists as well as performs magic in a sense of reaching eternity that we never imagined by existing and being on the invisible of things that can become visible over an extensive desire to subsist behind life, making all the transformations in which God may have gone through and transformed life more visible. the very origin of life and when we talk about transmutation in relativity it would be general because we would be entering into an alchemical process of a more indivisible variety like perhaps a step over god who is omnipotent and has no beginning or end almost as much as the universe which is infinite over things omnipresent as the man who can understand every detail narrated in this story that things are born from the invisible to the naked eye when there is a general understanding about the

relativities of life in which life and death are distinguished on a relativity in which man can create and give life on certain matters remaining as a study for the future of humanity on scientific criteria that are peacefully based on the laws of God as a study of divine omnipotence over the relativities of alchemy or the alchemy of relativities as a dream and fable that we can value the existence of life over death and death over life for being more living over all human relationships of man on earth.

I want to talk a little about the atomists of ancient Greece who classified matter as the elements of nature such as: fire, water, earth and air which, mixed in different proportions, would result in different physical-chemical properties as Aristotle's theory shows This composition between the human body which we call matter and which we can transmute certain substances from the invisible that will go through an alchemical process to become matter which we call the natural plane in which we can transmute from the spiritual side to the material state.

Atomists in ancient Greece

The atomists, led by Democritus and his teacher Leucippus, thought that matter was made up of tiny, invisible particles, the atoms (A-tom),"Without division". They thought that if we divided and divided again, the process would eventually stop.

For Democritus, the great variety of materials in nature came from the movements of different types of atoms that, when colliding, formed larger groups, generating different bodies with their own characteristics. Some ideas from Democritus about atoms:

Water: formed by slightly spherical atoms (water drains easily).

Earth: formed by cubic atoms (the earth is stable and solid)

Air: formed by atoms in swirling motion (air moves - winds).

Fire: formed by sharp atoms (fire hurts).

Soul: formed by the smoothest, most delicate and most active atoms that exist.

Breathing: it was considered an exchange of atoms, in which new atoms replace used atoms.

Democritus' foundations for atoms took shape over time. Epicurus (341 BC - approximately 270 BC) complemented his ideas by suggesting that there would be a limit to the size of the atoms, thus justifying the reason why they are invisible.

But even so, the most defended theory was that of Aristotle, who believed that matter would be made up of elements of nature such as fire, water, earth and air, which when mixed in different proportions, would result in different physicochemical properties.

In my view, which is about the criteria of life in which biology is classified into five kingdoms or even more because nature is a set of lives in which we can classify all the kingdoms here to have a logic and transformation of life over death and death over life that in everything and with everything in invisible alchemy we can show as the essence of life the mineral, vegetable, animal and soul kingdom that we can transcribe the fifth essence of life over an invisible world of transformation and transmutation in which the relativity of alchemy begins with the realms in which we can transmute and make materials live, both gross and dense, which are dense and subtle, which are processed by the soul, which are invisible and pass through the realm of the soul as a complete essence, turning into the fifth pleasure in which we materialize as an atom in the smallest fraction of a substantial element, life in which we can perform an invisible alchemy that will go through a process of transformation between the body, spirit and soul to create a substance, both a natural image mentalized by the mental consciousness at the same time. subconscious state of the human mind that was transformed into the natural state of matter being both liquid and solid that we can classify some existence transformed into life by the invisible alchemy in which we call quintessence.

Living world: presentation of the kingdoms

The modern classification system, which distributes living beings into five major kingdoms — Monera, Protista, Fungi, Metaphyta and Metazoa — was devised by R. H. Whittaker, in 1969. Thus, the known species of living beings are distributed into specific kingdoms, according to certain classification criteria.

The basic classification criteria

To classify living beings into the five great kingdoms, the following criteria were used:

type of cellular organization — defines whether living beings are prokaryotes or eukaryotes, that is, whether they are devoid of or possess a nuclear membrane, nucleolus and membranous organelles in their cells;

number of cells — considers whether living beings are unicellular or multicellular;

type of nutrition — indicates whether the organisms are autotrophs or heterotrophs; This criterion also considers the way in which heterotrophs obtain their food: whether by absorption or ingestion of available organic material.

The five great kingdoms According to the establishment of the aforementioned classification criteria, the living world was divided into the following kingdoms:

Kingdom Monera — Covers all unicellular and prokaryotic organisms, represented by bacteria and cyanobacteria or cyanobacteria, also known as blue algae.

Kingdom Protista — Comprises unicellular and eukaryotic organisms, such as protozoa and certain algae.

Kingdom Fungi — Comprises all fungi, which can be unicellular or multicellular and are eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms by absorption.

Kingdom Plantae or Metaphyta — Covers multicellular organisms, eukaryotes and autotrophs. This kingdom, also known as the plant kingdom, includes pluricellar algae, bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), pteridophytes (such as ferns and maidenhair), ginnosperms (such as pine trees and redwoods) and angiosperms ( ipês, lemon trees, beans, grass, etc.).

Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa — Comprises multicellular, eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms by ingestion. This kingdom encompasses all animals, from porifers to mammals.

Here I leave a great explanation about the beautiful images that pass from a flow of our minds in which we create well through a circumstance of our subconscious and we can, through the alchemy of creation, transmute to give life as the fifth pleasure that we call the fifth essence of life that we will know about this with an atomic study of the atom about life in which we classify the relativities of life about a great and alchemical transformation between the natural elements that became liquid and solid substances about life in a study well focused on alchemy and chemistry in which we build life.

I want to enter a more qualified state in which life is formed by an atom in which its particles constitute life and all the natural elements that pass between the atomic forces of the universe in which we can simplify the search for existence and life simply using each atom of protein, of vitamin in transmutation, the most variable liquid and solid atomic constructions in subsistence of life in which we will now show about the superlative atom to all creations:

THE ALCHEMY OF THE RELATIVITY OF LIFE

The origin of alchemy ia is lost in time, being older than the history of humanity. Its true beginning is unknown and shrouded in obscurity and mystery. Thus, its emergence is confused with the origin and evolution of man on Earth. The origin of alchemy is quite uncertain, as there are alchemical reports in several ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Persians, Mesopotamians, Hindus, Chinese and Japanese. However, it is generally considered that its beginnings occurred around the 3rd century BC, in Alexandria. And classified today as a vehicle for various things in life in which we can develop various related purposes as an extensive light on various developments of human capacity on earth as a creative flow to each possibility of life and existence on a great and infinite trajectory of pulsation over life how things can identify themselves over love and hate in which everything has alchemy as alchemy for different things in which a combined and pacified relationship with human nature and all existence is absorbed between both things of life in which we can transmute different things and transform them into something living or imaginary on a point of restoration between the spirit as nuclear chemistry and matters as atomic nuclei that we see in everything and through everything we transcribe and perfect ourselves on a great and extraordinary alchemy relatively imposed on life being used as functions of creation on any existence for the material man who sees life more prone to death as for the spatial man who sees life stencil on all nature in which we can classify ourselves superlatively on the natural elements as substances of creation being used in each atom as matter of the fifth essence, remaining above all in the third plane in which we can see how life began taking into account its relativities such as that of the primordial atom as a result of the relationships and existences of God and the devil on creation perhaps of heaven and hell standing over good and evil, as the law of the entire existence of life and its unwary was transformed and created when the great transformation of life was generated in which small fractions of atoms were drastically concentrated in which they combined about a great existence about a great explosion that was formed from seminal particles on certain atomic and chemical elements about a relationship between radioactivity, electricity and magnetism that when alchemy formed from the particles into atoms life with each element of nature created and contained about four existences in which nature was classified and is classified as water, air, earth and fire in which we can say that life and planets were created like the earth that was formed between the four elements that entered in alchemical transformations that we can also classify ourselves among them by a body called the atomic nucleus that naturally went through a transformation of atomic and nuclear development that we have life on earth almost as a fifth pleasure with the atom, protons and neutrons combined and formed into one atomic nucleus that we are the ones who also have water, air, fire and earth as related elements and as generators of our existences of life being created on the earth as oxygen, blood, body, combustion and we are human beings who can classify also as earthly or spatial beings in which we take as matter the spirit and soul of the things we inhabit and which we can transmute between a cycle of both the earth and the universe, being established on a relativity of universal nature in which through an alchemy we homogenize ourselves over a deeper relativity in which we can transform ourselves from dense to subtle and from subtle to dense, which we mean from chin and yang, which is from heaven and earth, which I mean from bottom to top and from top to bottom, leaving matter as a being spiritual the nucleus transmutable by the energy of the spirit which is the nuclear chemistry that is established on the sidereal planes of the universe when man can perhaps understand its transformation and combination that atoms enter into transformation and subtle combinations passing from the dense which is matter as nucleus atomic to the spirit, which is nuclear chemistry, and to the soul, the subtle electricity that combines over the same magnetic and subtle relationship of the universe, leaving matter more static over an alchemy more related to the seventh sense, staying over the quintessence of life in which we call relativity of life where all the atomic elements of life are formalized and formed, forming a living and statically developed being on the planes of universal nature.

When we talk about transmutation in relativity it would be general because we would be entering into an alchemical process of a more indivisible variety like perhaps a step over god who is omnipotent and has no beginning.

there is no end as nearly as the universe, which is infinite over the omnipresent things, as the man who can understand every detail narrated in this story that things are born from the invisible to the naked eye when there is a general understanding about the relativities of life in which the life and death on a relativity in which man can create and give life on certain matters remaining as a study for the future of humanity on scientific criteria that are peacefully based on the laws of God as a study of divine omnipotence over relativities of alchemy or the alchemy of relativities as a dream and fable that we can value the existence of life over death and death over life for being more living over all human relationships of man on earth.

Now I will speak under a more functional relationship that makes a mind go through different emotions due to certain functions that align with mental emotions due to the organic system committing to certain phenomenal consequences of feelings that align with a chemical state of life in its relativities with the soul and spirit make every chemical process transform us morally and create various personalities due to organic functions that resemble the human mind.

I simply want to make it very clear and talk about a great study that I have always researched in the area of ​​biology, anthropology, chemistry and psychology that will serve for a great scientific study of human science and I want to invite many scientists and chemists to delve deeper into this space for great research together, which will serve as a great study and research center for the Edu academy, I am aware of several very fundamental questions that come to fruition in relation to the human being and in his sentimental role that involves him with the mind and body and that distinguishes him infiltrates into a more chemical area that exerts a great relativity of the human being with his mental and physical functions and his reactions that are nothing more than side effects under a great relativity of feeling that comes from thought in an atomic combination that makes the human being can prove certain senses and among other relativities with matter and mind we can distinguish from smell to odor a great metaphysics that can be classified in a monotony of human feeling by the simple desire of the will that is reflected morally in their mental actions that by force of the spirit that, as a transitory effect of matter, absorbs certain chemical elements that give great reactions to the human mind in a biochemical function in their mental emotions that I want to tell you that we have certain elementary combinations of certain chemical substances that come from the smell of a dose of a perfume that certainly will bring us a certain decline in our emotions due to the chemical access of certain proteins, vitamins and mineral salts that are chemically transmuted by the sentimental force of our feelings that turn into certain desires, desires that we certainly cannot understand because human beings have their own limits of emotions that clash in different electrochemical charges, having both a satisfactory and harmful effect on our organisms that find themselves dispensed and controlled perhaps by the continuous force of matter that solidly unfold a feeling denser than through the infiltrations of the soul that we come to imagine and feel such feelings due perhaps to a very strong perfume smell that could change all the reactions and relationships of the mind under a contact between the human being and the soul that chemically feels this transformation of the spirit that takes place in chemical and mental forms both to undo or so much as create an emotional contour in the human mind that feels and thinks as matter hides various modifications of the personality that is emotionally distressed over a desire provoked by the smell or odor of any substances, both liquid and solid, that we can witness such functions in the I celebrate that it completes us and passes all information to the cells of the nervous system and involves us dissimulating various transformations and different emotional behaviors that we can understand where all alchemy is that chemically transforms to a state of mental conjunction and begins with its functions to take effect in the human mind that could be harmful to the human being as well as pleasurable to the human being that everything involves a great change and mental transformation that perhaps due, for example, to a smell of perfume, a dose that would totally affect mental balance because perhaps the organism is under exercise of low proteins and chemical functions would be a transport of certain toxic heroines that infiltrate the bloodstream transforming the way of thinking more drastic due perhaps to a feeling of guilt, anger or any absolution and exercise of baggage that would not fit the human being in a at the exact moment to prescribe certain dynamics without conformity or thought spiteful feeling that he lacked, perhaps if he was more calcified between a probability of certain substances he would feel more optimistic about life and would be more realistic to admit such circumstances of either hate or love that would prove to him that he would be more established and confident of his issues in terms of thought can propose to you certain attributes and other emotions that make you more alive and realistic to your desires that you may be or are proving to you with love in that your mind can conform to it due to the chemical exercise of certain vitamin substances that can make you a faithful, honest, optimistic or pessimistic person and everything depends on the mental formation due to the smell or odor felt at a certain time of the will to the chemical control of health that will preserve him more attitude under his rights and reasoning and everything would be a matter of logic between the body, spirit and soul that in the periphery and electron charges constitutes the soul of the atom that in a smaller fraction of an element everything can combine to a state of conservation or destruction causing a contradictory effect and adverse reactions to mental and organic control called emotional functions that through the exercise of proteins we assimilate such procedures that pacify themselves in the soul as an essence that transports both positive and negative energies and thus we constantly live under a transformative impulse of certain protein absolutions that impel us to reason the mind much better because The world would consequently be a socialized set of great emotional vibrations that make us transcend and fight against life and thus we are led by a mentalized fascination with certain heroines that we are not to blame for because we just reject these substances to the organic control of their functions that are struggling with the sentimental side of the soul that feels and thinks and that we can live and learn to dominate the will that would be more logical the mental emotions that are thrown like spears under such chemical reactions that could not exist and everything would be more normal and the world more extinct to so many maneuvers and relativities that involve the human being with life and justify our wills as well as certain desires to love or hate as a magnet for a relationship with the most intimate nature of a being and we can dominate good fortune and secure ourselves in the personality that really it transforms and changes constantly in certain people who are afflicted in life and align themselves under a chemical function in which we can unveil various issues and ways of thinking and acting in life in which we are human beings to better know life and its most important aspects that involved in various opinions and the human being can contain itself under such circumstances that lack certain chemicals that relate the human mind with the human being and their feelings and we will be able to understand the foundations of life and its particularities in evolution with the human being and the environment.

I will now show a great relativity of the human being with the senses that one has in the mental and emotional faculties, a great formation and combination that we call projection in which everything and everyone aligns in a formality of certain functions and chemical reactions that proliferates in the human mind passing through a sentimental state and elementally combined with the organism and its proteins that are related and opinionated to the reactions created by the organic functions that the mind feels and thinks and we will show here the five senses of the human body and its vibrations.

I want to thank everyone for this work done by me, which has served as support to many researchers and curious people in science and medicine and shows a great relativity that is classified under all the factors of life that talk about the five senses of the human being and their biochemical functions in relation to the relativity of mind and life and a little bit of biology, psychology, anthropology that show a contrast of a scientific infinity of all relationships with chemical functions that proposes a relationship with the mind and feeling, remaining the life more clairvoyant with its own existence and thank you all very much.

BIOGRAPHY OF CAUSES OF THE BODY, SPIRIT AND SOUL

BODY:

Composed of several parts and solid and humid throughout the region, I happen to be an atomic nucleus that struggles as a more than restored raw material of life in a human magnetic duel rotated by the subtle force of the soul, which is the power transformed into an act that is electricity.

Clearing every conscious and subconscious mind of the being and there is always a life in each one that always gives one a spiritual life that is generated by the spirit or holy spirit beyond a nucleus is nuclear chemistry.

SPIRIT:

Invisible, strong and vital or light of the existing life that by the nature of a life or creation of a life establishes itself to pulsate within the nucleus the nuclear chemistry that is extinguished in various functions that is something no one goes too deep with the unshakable conscience to put in conflict be with the soul or for You may be in conflict with your own Self.

Fighting spirit, spirit of life or whoever gives life is always with us until the turn of life or time.

SOUL:

The essence of everything in life that we acquire with wisdom and perfection is our blessed mind in the conscious state and then becomes a tremendous and formidable recorder that we call our subconscious.

Soul gives life to things like music, books, visionary creators, etc.!

All for the love of someone who did everything in his soul!

It is consistent, fabulous, rich and intelligent and there is always within us the soul that gives it shine, a formation equivalent to the superior and inferior Self at the base of the construction.

A PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PLANET EARTH ON VARIOUS FACTORS ON THE BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS OF LIFE AMONG ITS RELATIONS WITH NATURE

I have been studying in my conceptions a more extinct way to decipher life on a great and esteemed development of my research on perhaps a great and very favorable work that I put as a starting point every relationship and origin with life and on the great development of universe to planet earth in which we can almost distinguish its origin and atomic passage between its great transformations with nature in which I explain in my dynamics that there is an immense space above us in which all the transformations of the universe on earth were taken and as for terrestrial beings, we can also have a synthesis of their relationship with nature that we could classify as a great dynamic that rests on an atomic alchemy that in everything and from everything life could have been born and we will talk about a More or less static chemistry that we rarely fail to understand atomically its probabilities that in my opinion everything is about a large concentration of electrons, neutrons, ions, protons and other elements that everything is about a propagation of radio waves to places far from the earth by contain ions and electrons and radio waves are reflected from the ionosphere, which is the upper part of the Earth's atmosphere where ionization takes place, located above the stratosphere, which is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere located approximately between 11 kilometers and 50 kilometers in altitude between the troposphere and the ionosphere that makes me think about the layers of the atmosphere in rotation and translation movements that through nuclear chemistry we can see the transformation over the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere and they are not distributed in an equal way and their distances varies according to the densities of the chemical elements and it is where all chemistry is transformed, causing a contradictory effect on the planet on the crust, soil and stones that formalize the construction of our planet and so we can research the dynamics of alchemy that are compressed over a great development of the world causing a more atomic effect on life and thus serious our universe that pulsates and repulses on movements of rotation and translation being formed by nuclear chemistry every alchemical manifestation of the atoms that turn from water to rocks causing a great fluid of ore and other chemical elements and nature wants to take space over life and the dynamics of the universe is over its functions and reactions that a nucleus can create by creating an element and giving life to space and this is how the earth was formed and the planets were formed aligned on a relationship with the atomic nature of life and we can prescribe this story more or less about a great creation of life and so all particles combine into molecules and become an atom in the smallest fraction of an element and we can understand life and I say that Chemistry enters into a cyclone with the matter planes coming from the electrical side of the spirit and combining on a dense or subtle body that in physics we can unveil where everything may have started between chemical and atomic functions on the movements of translation and rotation that occur The planet rotates and so we will be on the great development of an atom on large loads of electrons and escapes that created the planets and that is how atomically we can prescribe in life about their resonances.

I want to talk about the natural elements that are present in the stratosphere, which contain the air for plants and animals, and we can classify geophysics as the layer of the Earth's atmosphere and assimilate the most subtle chemistry in it, as well as the soul, which is subtle and is formalized between a nuclear procedure passing from the state of oxygen which, among organic functions, is exerted on the relativities of the spirit as the creator of existence to who gives life and everything, and transforms into an oxygen atom between carbon chains and it is an element chemical with atomic number 8 and symbol O we can also see the stratosphere is the second layer closest to the earth and it contains the ozone gas responsible for the most well-known protection barriers from ultraviolet known as the ozone layer and also the mesosphere is characterized by being very cold and once in contact with the stratosphere it is a little warmer. Heat exchange point both and the thermosphere is the most extensive layer of the atmosphere and the air is thin, so it easily absorbs solar radiation and the exosphere is the longest layer of the most and is composed of Helium gas and hydrogen in all relativities we can verify on a triceps aspect that we are showing that the planet itself and its elements consist of an extraordinary mass of atomic weight in nuclear relationship with all terrestrial nature and when its chemical functions are favored by the great nuclear elements that make up the entire existence of life and I want to make it very clear that it is from natural elements that all atomic weights are obtained and that everything comes from a great chemical and nuclear transformation to establish a consistent nucleus in an atom called earth, which is simply our planet and here we can understand all the causes and consistencies of a great electromagnetic and magnetic formation that develop giving priority and lives to the world through the consistency of creation and relationship of nature and I want to talk about the beginning of the world and that's how it all started from nothing to a great pulsation and explosion that created life chemically on the continuous force of the universe that heated up and exploded it giving rise to all the relativity of life on great chemical functions that we prescribed its history in physics and thus life was created on earth and the world was born for everyone according to the teachings of the Bible, focusing on the scientific part of the existence of the universe.

Big Bang: understand the theory of the origin of the Universe

Big Bang: understand the theory of the origin of the Universe

September 21, 2020

By PRAVALER

One of the most frequently asked topics in the National Secondary Education Examination (Enem) and in entrance exams across the country is about the origin of the Universe, essential content in primary and secondary education subjects. Because of this, and always thinking about helping you during the test, we decided to develop this article with one of the most valid theories on the subject: Big Bang.

Firstly, it is important to remember that there are only two valid theories regarding the origin of the Universe: the evolutionary one, also called scientific, and the creationist one, considered religious. As religion is based on different beliefs, the second is not part of the school textbook and, therefore, is excluded from the tests. With this, we are left with an understanding of the evolutionary theory, required in college selection processes.

For science, the Universe began in a process called the “Big Bang” and, from there, it expanded. This Big Bang theory, however, says much more about the idea of ​​evolution than the explosion itself, as the circumstances of the event are unknown. For scientists, this explosion came from a single particle with infinite density (which even surpasses the laws of space and time).

Are you interested and want to know more about the subject to do well on the Enem test? Continue reading and stay up to date with us!

In this article you will find:

What is the Big Bang theory?

Who created the Big Bang theory?

Fundamentals of the Big Bang model

General relativity

The cosmological principle

Main aspects of the Big Bang theory

The beginning of everything

Inflationary period

Opaque universe

Transparent universe

Gravitational collapse

Formation of galaxies

Can the Big Bang Theory be extinct?

Big Bang summary for the entrance exam

What is the Big Bang theory?

What we can say is that the Big Bang theory is – if not the only one – the most accepted theory in scientific circles, even today, for explaining the origin of the Universe. It supports the idea that, as we saw above, the Universe emerged through the explosion of a single particle, called the primordial atom, and caused the cosmic cataclysm. This occurred around 13.8 billion years ago and even states that the Universe continues to expand.

Therefore, although the term “Big Bang” refers us to the idea of ​​an explosion, that is not what the theory is about, but rather an expansion originating from a tiny state into what, today, we call the Universe. In other words, the Big Bang theory is not intended to explain the origin of everything, but to make us understand how this explosion transformed and remains in constant expansion.

Who created the Big Bang theory?

The Big Bang theory was proposed in 1920 by the Jesuit priest and astronomer Georges-Henri Lemaître (1894-1966) and was originally called the primordial atom hypothesis. Some time later, the hypothesis took shape and was developed by the Russian physicist George Gamov (1904-1968). For the scientist, one of the main ideas was that the formation of atomic nuclei in the Universe left traces of detectable radiation, in the microwave range.

Lemaître, when proposing the theory, took into account studies regarding the theory of general relativity, by Albert Einstein (1879-1955), which had already been explored by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann (1888-1925), however, in a much more mathematical interpretation than physics for the expansion of the Universe. Lemaître went beyond the mathematician's studies and sought to explain the explosion of the atom in a much more robust way.

Later, studies by Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) reinforced the idea that galaxies remain apart in all directions, further completing the Big Bang theory. This study identified that the further away a galaxy is, the greater the speed at which it moves away from us, a definition called Hubble's Law.

Fundamentals of the Big Bang model

To understand the basic principles of the Bing Bang theory a little better, it is important to keep in mind that the model is based on two fundamental pillars. We explain a little about each of them below:

General relativity

The theory of general relativity is essential for studies of the evolution of the Universe. In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed such a theory postulating that light, in a vacuum, has a constant speed (regardless of the source), that mass is dependent on speed, that time dilates throughout a high-speed movement, that energy and mass are equivalent and that no matter moves faster than light in a vacuum.

Going further, the theory of general relativity presents gravitation as the action of masses over time and space, resulting in changes to bodies and other physical properties. We can then say that, in short, in the theory of general relativity, Einstein states that the relationship between space and time changes depending on matter.

The cosmological principle

The cosmological principle assumes that the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic, in which the first means that, on a large scale, the average density of the Universe is equal throughout the Universe and, the second, refers to the appearance of the Universe, claiming to be the same in any direction. Taken together, homogeneity and isotropy imply uniformity. In other words, in the Universe, there is no direction or special place.

Big Bang Theory Cosmological Principle

Main aspects of the Big Bang theory

After Lemaître's theory, other astronomical observations began to appear. An example is the observation published by Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) about the movement of galaxies. According to the scientist, galaxies move away from each other in all directions of space and at high speed. Going further, this theory was evidenced by a discovery by physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson regarding cosmic radiation, which further reinforced the hypothesis of the primordial atom.

With so many discoveries, it was possible to conclude that the separation of galaxies is a consequence of an expanding Universe, as proposed in previous hypotheses, and that the background radiation refers to a starting point, a unified dense particle, confirming all theories previous ones. Therefore, all atomic nuclei were created through the process called nucleosynthesis. All these steps finally culminate in the Big Bang theory!

Phew, did you follow this far? So check out our review and take good note of the stages of the formation of the Universe to do well in the entrance exams!

The beginning of everything

As we have seen, despite the name suggesting an explosion, Big Bang concerns the expansion process (since the reasons why the particle exploded are still unknown, despite much research into it) of a single point in space, singular, with density and temperature extremely high.

Inflationary period

Yes, the Universe is old! And, when it was about 10-35 seconds long, a period called inflationary, its size increased exponentially – about 90 times! As a result, the Universe became colder and less dense, which gave rise to the fundamental forces of space and time, among others known in science.

Big Bang Theory Inflationary Period

Opaque universe

And since we are talking about the age of the Universe, it is worth mentioning that some light elements on the periodic table, including helium and hydrogen, appeared in the first minutes of life. This occurred through the combination of protons, creating atomic nuclei.

As a result, a trail of energy coming from all directions in the Universe was left, which is called cosmic background radiation in scientific circles. Another important point is in relation to the density of the Universe: between 300-400 thousand years old, it was so dense that no light could propagate.

Transparent universe

As the expansion occurred, there was also a decrease in temperature, allowing the union of free electrons with atomic nuclei, giving rise to the first neutral atoms – a phase known as recombination. Thus, light began to propagate more easily through space, making the Universe increasingly transparent.

Gravitational collapse

Another milestone This happened when the Universe reached around 200 million years old, when gravitational forces began to gather in large quantities of gas. At this stage, the Universe was composed of 75% hydrogen and 25% helium gas. With the agglutination of these atoms in small volumes and in the face of high temperatures and pressures, another process began: that of nuclear fusion of hydrogen particles, giving rise to stars. Incredible, right?

Formation of galaxies

When the Universe reached its 500 million years old, the gravitational force came together, so that the stars began to cluster together, giving rise to galaxies.

As we can see so far, the Big Bang theory is not important for science just because it gives us an explanation about the origin of the Universe, it goes beyond that. The astronomical observations arising from this theory are equally important for understanding space, especially in relation to the discovery of the four forces of nature: electromagnetism, gravitational force, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force.

Can the Big Bang Theory be extinct?

Although scientific research is always going deeper into the subject, the Big Bang theory is very unlikely to be extinguished, as it concerns the transformation of the Universe and not its beginning itself. As this expansion still reflects what we have in space today, astronomical observations can add to the theory, but without the intention of nullifying what has been proven.

What we have, however, are some variations of the Big Bang theory, among them the one that proposes that the Universe is cyclical, that is, that it is composed of endless cycles of explosions and implosions, called bangs and big crunches consequently – which is now scientifically named the theory of cosmological cycles.

Big Bang summary for the entrance exam

So, did you follow the reasoning? As we know that it is not always easy to keep all the points in a subject, we are going to list the main phases of the Big Bang theory so that you can take note and do well on the entrance exam! Let's go?

The beginning of it all: despite the name suggesting explosion, Big Bang concerns the expansion process;

Inflationary phase: origin of the fundamental forces of space and time (when the Universe increased its size by 90 times, it became colder and less dense);

Opaque universe: phase of the first minutes of life, when helium and hydrogen gas originated (at this stage, everything was so dense that light did not propagate);

Transparent universe: phase of decreasing temperature and union of free electrons with atomic nuclei (here, light began to propagate more easily);

Gravitational collapse: phase in which atoms coalesce into small volumes, creating stars;

Formation of galaxies: 500 million years ago, the union of gravitational force caused stars to cluster together and give rise to galaxies.

Now it's easier, right? Our tip is to always make a summary like the one above so that the topics are more easily memorized.

Planet Earth

To study planet Earth, it is necessary to make references to the galaxy in which we are located: the Milky Way. This reference is necessary to understand the arrangement of the planets, their orbits, similarities, differences and other matters that help us understand what happens inside and outside the Earth.

Our planet is one of eight in the Solar System orbiting around a central star: the Sun. This orbit allows the development of life due to the temperature that reaches us, what we call solar radiation.

Read also: Cartographic projections – representations of the Earth on a flat surface

Formation and characteristics of planet Earth

It is estimated that our planet was formed more or less 4.6 billion years ago. Since then, the Earth has undergone constant changes, some clear, others very long and that human beings do not notice. Such changes can occur from internal factors, such as core energy, or external factors, such as rain, erosion processes, and human action.

The formation of the Solar System was the result of a collapse between large stars, which generated a large junction of energy. This energy later formed the components of the system, such as the Sun and other planets.

The Earth, 4.6 billion years ago, was a mass of magmatic matter that, over millions of years, cooled. This cooling gave rise to a rocky layer, the lithospheric layer. This period is called the Precambrian Era.

Over these billions of years, several mutations have occurred on the planet, many violent, such as earthquakes and tidal waves, also known as seismic shocks. These tremors occur from the inside out, in the Earth's inner layers, significantly altering the Earth's surface.

Other less violent changes were gradual, such as the formation of the layer of gases that surround the planet, the atmosphere. This layer protects us from the strong solar radiation that reaches the Earth, allowing hoping there is life. However, at the beginning of time, billions of years ago, the Earth was an uninhabitable place, with constant volcanic eruptions, high temperatures and quite dangerous.

The planet's movements, such as rotation (around itself) and translation (around the Sun), enabled the Earth to have a spherical shape, which is flattened at the poles. This shape is called a geoid. Its interior is somewhat inhospitable and, until recently, unknown.

Model of the Earth's geoid shape.

Model of the Earth's geoid shape.

With the development of technology, the measurement of seismic shocks has made it possible to understand the interior of the planet. The seismic waves caused by these tremors cross large regions and can be tracked and provide valuable information about the Earth's internal structure. Its interior still has the magmatic layer from billions of years ago. For every 33 m depth, it is estimated that the temperature rises by 1 ºC.

On the Earth's surface, the layer in which we live, we can find various minerals used in everyday life. The crust, as the surface is known, covers the entire planet, whether on the continents (continental crust) or on the oceans (oceanic crust). At the bottom of the seas and oceans there is the ocean floor, where silicon and magnesium compounds (sima) can frequently be found. On continents, silicon and aluminum (sial) give consistency to almost the entire surface.

Inner layers of planet Earth

Inside, our planet has a layered structure, each with several specific characteristics. Based on studies carried out to date, we can generally classify them into three main ones: crust (oceanic and continental), mantle (upper and lower) and core (internal and external). We can compare this structure to that of an avocado: the skin of the fruit being the crust, the skin being the mantle, and the pit being the core.

The crust, the outer shell of the planet, is the surface layer and can be called the lithosphere. It is in this layer that we are, where reliefs, oceans, seas, rivers, biosphere, and others are located. For human beings, it is the layer in which life develops. To give you an idea, the thickness of the crust can vary from 5 km to 70 km. Even with this size, it is just the “shell” of the planet, which reveals its immensity.

The oceanic crust, as the name suggests, is the part below the sea, measuring 5 km to 15 km thick. It is thinner than continental crust. It can have a thickness of 30 km to 70 km, being the part of the planet that forms the continents.

The mantle is located at a depth that can vary from 70 km to 2900 km. In this large area, magma is located, a viscous layer that surrounds the core and is responsible for the movement of tectonic plates, located in the lithosphere.

The upper mantle is below the lithosphere, at a depth of approximately 670 km. In it we find the asthenosphere, an area with a viscous characteristic that allows the crust to move over thousands of years, modifying the Earth's relief.

In the lower mantle, located at a depth of 670 km to 2900 km, we find the mesosphere, a solid part of this structure that comes close to the core. It is solid due to the pressure exerted by the weight of the Earth.

Scheme representing the Earth's internal layers: crust, upper and lower mantle, and core.

The core is the deepest layer of the planet, reaching 6700 km. The inner core is solid, with several mineral compounds, including nickel and iron. This layer is responsible for the magnetic field that exists around the planet. The outer core is liquid, having a thickness of approximately 1600 km. The temperature in this region can reach 6500 ºC.

See also: Why do volcanoes erupt?

External structure of planet Earth

The Earth's surface is the outer layer of the planet. There are three layers that meet: the hydrosphere (the set of waters), the biosphere (life, biomes) and the lithosphere (rocks and minerals).

Furthermore, there is the atmosphere on the Earth's surface, the set of gases that allow breathing and protect the planet from the sun's rays, so that they do not arrive with such intensity. It is basically made up of oxygen, nitrogen and water, but contains other chemical elements.

The hydrosphere is where human beings obtain resources for their survival, such as water, food (fish and crustaceans), marine mineral resources (oil), in addition to using the oceans, seas and rivers to transport people and/or cargo.

The biosphere and the Earth's surface are concepts that are similar at times, as they refer to the existence of life on Earth. However, the Earth's surface encompasses more elements, such as the hydrosphere. In the biosphere, we have organic and inorganic elements and living beings, which help to prosper life on the planet.

In the lithosphere, we have the formation of continents and islands, the emerged lands. It is one of the few areas in the world directly affected by humans.

Earth movements

In Earth's orbit, our planet performs two movements that are crucial for the development of life: translation and rotation.

Rotation is the movement carried out by the planet around its own axis, being a turn around itself. This movement, carried out in a counterclockwise direction, that is, from west to east, has the direct consequence of the existence of days and nights. Furthermore, the Sun is seen first in the eastern part of the world, which is why Japan is known as “the land of the rising Sun”. This movement lasts, on average, 23 hours 56 minutes or 24 hours (the solar day).

Translation is the movement carried out around the Sun. A complete translation means one year for society, as this movement lasts 365 days and 6 hours. Because of this, every four years, an extra day is added to the month of February, creating a leap year, with 366 days.

The two movements are made simultaneously, at the same time. Due to the force of gravity and the immense weight of the planet, they are not noticed. However, the days and nights (rotation) and the existence of the seasons (translation) show us how alive the Earth is. If you want to know more about these movements, visit: Earth Movements.

Curiosities about planet Earth

When we compare Earth with other planets, countless curiosities can arise. Let's look at some.

Of the eight planets, seven are named after Roman gods.

Of the eight planets, seven are named after Roman gods.

Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that is not named after a god. The other planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—were named after Roman gods.

Earth is the only planet in the Solar System where water can be found in three states: solid, liquid and gas.

Earthquakes occur every two minutes on the planet.

140 million years from now, there will be 25 hours in a day. This is because the Earth's rotation will be slower, which will increase the number of hours in a day.

Our planet is called Earth, but 70% of its surface is covered in water: the oceans.

After the Industrial Revolution, studies show that the Earth's temperature increased by 0.8 ºC.

There is a strong magnetic field around the Earth, which made it possible to make compasses, which help with terrestrial location.

During some moments in history, such as the Middle Ages, it was believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe.

Galileo Galilei proved, in 1613, that the Earth was not the center of the Universe, but was forced by the Catholic Church to deny his theory. In 1992, Pope John Paul II apologized to Galileo for the religious mistake and formally recognized his theory.

The deepest hole on Earth is in Russia, measuring 12.2 km deep.

Published by Átila Matias

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Planet Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer known as the Earth's atmosphere.

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Earth's crust

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Soil cultivation and conservation

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Saara's desert

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Geological time scale

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Seasons of the year represent four subdivisions of the periods of the year: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Each one presents a climate pattern and characteristics specific to each region, occurring heterogeneously in the Southern and Northern Hemispheres. Read this text and learn about the particularities of each season of the year.

Moon phases

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Moon

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Rotation movement

Understand how the Earth's rotation works and understand the importance and causes of this movement.

Translational movement

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Planet Neptune

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Planet Saturn

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Gas planets in the Solar System

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Rocky planets in the Solar System

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PHILOSOPHY

Jean Bodin

Philosopher, political theorist and jurist, Jean Bodin was a defender of the absolute monarchy and founded a political theory that summarizes his position: the theory of the divine right of kings. Watch our class to learn about Jean Bodin's thoughts.

Let's talk a little about Geophysics here.

Geophysics is the study of the Earth's structure, composition, physical properties and dynamic processes. Unlike Geology, whose study of the Earth is done through direct observations of rocks, Geophysics investigates the underground through indirect measurements. It is subdivided into global (pure) and prospecting (exploration or applied).

In global or pure Geophysics we can study the physical phenomena that occur on the planet such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, among others. In terms of prospecting or exploration geophysics, we use surveys/methods such as seismic, electrical, electromagnetic, potential (magnetic and gravimetric), radiometric, geothermal, etc.

Geophysical investigation of the Earth's interior consists of taking measurements at or near the surface. These measurements are influenced by the internal distribution of physical properties (parameters). Analyzing the measurements can reveal how the physical properties of the Earth's interior vary vertically and laterally. Much of terrestrial knowledge, below the depths that can be reached through boreholes, comes from geophysical observations.

Surveys can be terrestrial, aerial and marine.

It has applications in underground water, fossil fuels, geothermal, geotechnics, environmental contamination and investigation of other ores in general such as gold, iron, etc.

Methods

Rocks differ in one or more of their properties, causing variations in the physical fields and in the propagation of waves that act on them. Consequently, these variations, when detected, can provide information about the materials that caused them.

This is the basis of Prospecting Geophysics, the investigation of subsurface features of relatively small dimensions, based on the observation of their effects on physical fields and wave propagation.

Gravimetric

All masses are under the effect of mutual attraction, governed by the law of universal gravitation. Lateral changes in the Earth's density produce local variations in the value of the Earth's gravitational field which, although very small, can often be detected, allowing deductions about the subsurface.

Gravimetry is focused on the study of these small local disturbances of the Earth's gravitational field, generated by the distribution of masses underground, that is, by the presence of rocks of different densities. Denser materials contribute more strongly to the gravitational field than less dense ones, when considering the same volume and the same depth for both; If the materials have the same density, the greatest contribution comes from those closest to the surface, if they occupy the same volume, or, if the materials occur at the same depth, from those that make up the largest volume.

Magnetic

Each rock magnetizes according to its magnetic susceptibility, depends on the quantity and mode of distribution of the magnetic minerals present. The concentration of magnetic minerals produces local distortions in the Earth's magnetic field, which can be detected and provide information about the subsurface.

Magnetometry is based on the study of local variations in the Earth's magnetic field, derived from the existence, in the subsurface, of rocks containing minerals with strong magnetic susceptibility, such as magnetite, ilmenite and pyrrhotite.

In both Gravimetry and Magnetometry, physical fields are present; Therefore, it is not necessary for the subsurface rocks to be excited to obtain a measurement of the physical field. These methods follow the Potential Theory and have several similarities between them. They are referred to as Potential Methods.

Electrical

They deal with purely galvanic phenomena and, therefore, use direct or even alternating current, but of very low frequency (< 10 Hz), such that the induction phenomenon can be neglected. The current can be introduced into the ground through electrodes while the potential difference is measured through other electrodes, providing information about the subsurface. Among these electrical methods, the following stand out: Spontaneous Potential Method (SP – uses natural currents that may appear, for example, in the vicinity of concentrations of conductive minerals); Electroresistivity Method (currents are generated artificially); Induced Polarization Method (IP – currents also generated artificially, but the potential difference is measured after the current has stopped or its frequency has been varied, which makes it possible to evaluate the rocks' ability to store electrical energy)

Electromagnetics

The investigation is based on the phenomenon of induction. A current, always of low frequency (< a few tens of thousands of Hz), which can circulate in a coil, starts the process of exciting the subsurface through the induction phenomenon; Electrical conductors, perhaps present underground, cause distortions in the electromagnetic field, detectable through another coil, which provides information about the conductors that caused them.

Radiometric

Some isotopes of various elements disintegrate spontaneously, emitting particles and electromagnetic radiation that can be detected and allow the location of the material that produced them. This phenomenon, whose occurrence is probabilistic, is known as radioactivity and originates in the nucleus of unstable atoms. For this reason, radioactivity is not considered a physical property, but a property of the atomic nucleus.

The study of the distribution of radioactive material in terrestrial materials is carried out in Radiometry, taking into account, in particular, the electromagnetic radiation emitted during its disintegration.

Seismic

Rocks with different elasticities allow waves to propagate at different speeds. These waves, when encountering media with different elastic properties, have their energy partly reflected and partly refracted. Knowing the travel time of the waves at different points as well as the distance between these points, it is possible to deduce the wave propagation speeds and the position of the interfaces that separate the media with different elasticity values. By associating different types of rocks with these media, it is possible to know the distribution of rocks in the subsurface.

Seismic is based on measuring, at various points, the travel time of artificially induced elastic waves, generally close to the ground surface. There are two distinct techniques: one that makes use of reflected waves, Reflection Seismic, and the other, refracted waves, Refraction Seismic.

Geothermal

The propagation of heat on Earth, whether of internal origin, due to radioactive disintegration or lesser chemical and physical processes, or of external origin, due to the radiant energy of the Sun, depends on the thermal conductivity of rocks.

The Thermal Method investigates, through temperature measurement, differences in the propagation of heat, whose origin dates back to the existence, in the subsurface, of rocks with different values ​​of thermal conductivity or sources of anomalous heat, which allows the identification and delimitation of both.

Geophysical well logging

Drilling is the last stage of prospecting a tubular well, whether for oil, water or any other use. Although current advanced geophysical and geological methods may suggest the most promising locations, it is only the drilling of the well that will reveal whether or not the predictions will be confirmed.

Rocks can be identified based on their electrical properties (electrical conductivity, induced polarization, dielectric constant or electrochemical potential

natural), acoustic (speed of propagation or transit time of compressional or shear elastic waves), radioactive (radioactive natural or induced age), mechanical, thermal, etc.. Such properties can be obtained with the continuous displacement of one or more logging sensors (probe) within a well and were generically called, in the past, electrical profiles, regardless of the physical measurement process used. The ideal is to include electrical, acoustic, radioactive, mechanical, thermal geophysical profiles, etc., depending on the property used for recording. The graphical representation between depths and petrophysical properties is called Geophysical Profile. To this end, the cable of the logging units, through which the most varied types of sensors are lowered into the wells.

Atmosphere layers

The existence of the atmosphere is extremely important for life on Earth. For teaching purposes, it was divided into a few layers. The layers of the atmosphere, together, make up an extension of approximately 1000 km. They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. They are not distributed equally and their distance varies according to the density of the chemical elements that compose them, so that, as they move away from the Earth's surface, they become more rarefied.

The Earth's atmosphere has a total of five layers, whose compositions vary depending on the height of each one.

Troposphere: is the layer closest to the Earth's crust. It contains the air used in the respiration of plants and animals. It is basically composed of the same elements found throughout the atmosphere, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon dioxide. Almost all of the vapor found in the atmosphere is located in the troposphere, which occupies 75% of the atmospheric mass. It reaches around 17 km in the tropics and little more than 7 km in the polar regions.

Stratosphere: is the second layer closest to Earth. It contains ozone gas, responsible for the protective barrier against ultraviolet rays, better known as the Ozone Layer. Reaching up to 50 km in height, the stratosphere is characterized by having little air flow and being very stable. As it has a small amount of oxygen, the stratosphere is not suitable for the presence of man. However, on October 14, 2012, Austrian Felix Baumgartner jumped from a height of 39 km, impressing the whole world (however, to do so, he needed a special suit that ensured he could breathe).

Mesosphere: with heights of up to 80km, the mesosphere is characterized by being very cold, with temperatures that fluctuate around -100ºC. Its temperature, however, is not uniform throughout its entire length, since the part in contact with the stratosphere is a little hotter, the point of heat exchange between the two.

Thermosphere: it is the most extensive atmospheric layer, reaching a height of 500 km. Air is scarce and, therefore, easily absorbs solar radiation, reaching temperatures close to 1000ºC and thus becoming the hottest layer in the atmosphere.

Exosphere: it is the furthest layer from Earth, reaching a height of 800 km. It is basically composed of helium and hydrogen gas. It houses data satellites and space telescopes.

Published by Rodolfo F. Alves Pena

I want to thank everyone for this extraordinary work of mine that I researched in the field of science, that chemistry originated the entire creation of life and that the universe is still expanding and I simply talk about its functions and constructions that show how life was preserved and man It depends in the same way on an atom in electrical construction that in everything and with everything formalizes the existence of each element on each atom, giving rise to transformations in life and thank you very much for all of you!

THE POWER OF THE SUBCONSCIOUS

I believe that there are several sciences in our lives that, through a means of acting, we can better identify with an atmosphere. our desires that we live more unconsciously than consciously and I find this fact to be a subtle and excellent proof that we can identify ourselves with our feelings that we feel and pass on to the subconscious a mentalization of whatever this thing is and keep it out of a conviction of a magnificent experience of our subconscious as several writers talk about this total power that reacts in a positive way in our minds like Joseph Murphy and other writers that the mind operates and works miracles on you.

There have been many cases of miracles in churches or in people from different places who were sick with serious health problems and were cured by high esteem or ardent faith that moves you and all of us because our minds go on cycle paths with the soul and the unnoticed spirit goes through a high energy process like a euphoria that is simply generated atomically to the subconscious and matter is healed and illness and disseminated by an extraordinary energy called holy spirit or power of the mind that generates the subconscious and passes this information to you in a state of faith in your feelings.

I believe that the mind heals and works miracles in all of us!

In another vision, I want to reach deeper between us and seriously move to the other side of life because we are more passive and our subconscious are being put into an extraordinary form of phenomenal existence that we start to create in our mental visions images of people, places and etc.

So this is magnificent and everything will be magnanimous, giving us the ability to intercedely explore our cosmic world in which thousands of particles have been integrated into a smaller fraction of our atom that, through the subtle energy of the soul generated in our subconscious, will form a subtle nucleus through be an image and then it will be transmuted in our mind without any dense disturbance and will become dense in a projection of the mind in our visions that will atomically be a being or perhaps something that we think about.

I read this in a book about magnetic life forms by an American scientist who was researching the origin of the cosmic universe and started to penetrate the power of the mind and used the subconscious and did some experiments using photographs and images that in the future he could create something, perhaps with life or raw to the details of mother nature in which all this remains in the quintessential essence of life.

Using the power of the mind, quantum physics, the fearless laws of the cosmic universe in which we involve ourselves, body and soul, on an extraordinary creation of our subconscious that stores and then projects any creation, everything being a combination of our mind.

I believe in God, the almighty father and creator of heaven and earth, but I tell you that there is a chemical factor in our functions that completes us with the four elements of universal nature and if we are the son of this omnipotent god, we can perhaps place a magnetic radiation on our minds that are active and are a small universe to develop and create things that can benefit us among our material planes.

Passing from the subtle to the dense state in a magnetic transmutation of our subconscious and projecting onto a material plane after integration with life.

Perhaps the gross materials are too hard because they are dense and weighed down in any formulation or creation leaving the light state that is subtle and is at the same time with the soul and can then be generated and become homogeneous to any matter.

In a spiritual study we leave every material side and seek more our intimate and our Self to have a profound conservation of life and all existence because I tell you that the spirit means light and life and that is where all life is located. be nuclear chemistry.

Matter is the atomic nucleus and this nucleus is dense and contains liquid in its physical state and our brains pass different information to every part of our bodies that react in a chemical state and with emotional influences causing a positive and negative impact on our feelings that they pass information to the subconscious, which stores it so that we can later identify with our subjects.

I believe that we can reach a goal in life when we join the two positive and negative levels through a more passive escape hatch that we see and can create a more conducive and efficient form of life that is similar to the universe itself and that does not destroy itself and Yes, always have life assured without any illness and may we live happily for a long time in life.

ERAS

Perhaps we are going through a reason to relate with the good intention of trying to understand all the stories and old causes that begin, perhaps by showing us the life of a more constructive formation in which we cling to the old history and seek an answer in the old time that It remains in the past that makes us react and restrain ourselves from certain suggestions that remind us of how the world originated and how long it may have taken man to conquer it better and that we will not see the world fade away because I believe that the world was born in bloom and that all herbs have always provided us with a cure for various human distortions in which man may have been victimized by the aberrations of life, causing him certain illnesses, but we can also prescribe their origins and destructions, which reminds me of man's natal restart in his life that has always dueled with earthly beings and today we see the world locked in wars and that we can understand certain attributes and uncertain lessons that makes me say why fight wars if we were born with a feeling perhaps of improving the knowledge of the world that can contain us and us? always show its extensions in which the deconstruction machine can be released and show the man who appreciates knowledge a certain distortion in his way of knowing and creating appropriate things to always manipulate the life of the being human in that nature reveals to us self-esteem, the great relativities of man with nature that we preserve under a natural intimacy of knowing life better and its bases on maturing for humanity in that the sacramental power of man is to destroy his own existence that perhaps we have been distracted by the uncertainties that all the graces could conceive for us and war is not part of this world because in everything nature limits itself and it is from the limit that life is consumed in which we can make good fruits grow as we make great ones sprout tragedies that break out in life with the aim of destroying human nature while there has still been a truce on education with religion that is formalized between a great fraternity and understanding in the lives of human beings who try to mature and see the world better and clearer in how much survival becomes insufficient against the destructive regime over men who exchange their lives for perhaps an indefinite and destructive matter of living and we can see the world differently in which we may be creating a devaluing aspect of the relationship with God and see the sin as something superlative that always manipulates the constructive relationships of life with man who becomes a war machine and the world always proves innocent against the durability of living the imaginary existence of the human being would be to conquer life but he may be being absorbed by the power, anger, failure and pride that has always made you incapable and uncertain of protecting yourself and that life would be the realistic target of its consequences and we can value the better and bigger world in that we prosper with peace and our feelings always gave us security in how much there is human integrity about life and that we need to understand the notion of life and its existences because someday we will find firmer answers to our understandings and if a life begins and life can always show us the path and the truth .

I simply want to talk about a notion that involves us with all the atmospheres that in the law apply to various questions that we suppose to say that the world may have come from a vibrational set of certain ideas that are extinguished in various ways and formations that put us and It dazzles, under a great question of appreciating time and its modalities, that supposedly we can be living here today a great constitutional variety of certain habits and fundamental concepts that have been formalized since the beginning of the world until the present day in which we see the human being passing and behaves in different ways that we can now understand where it all started and I want to talk here about several religions that in my opinion have taken on various issues for the maturation of human beings in life regarding various distortions that prevent us from surviving and achieve life better, as well as politics has always infected human beings in a threefold more positive and realistic way of living and that there can also be great contradictions on their part that we can rarely observe this issue of the human being who is born to believe and do things things due to faith in the holy spirit as there is more light among men who throw themselves into the most penalistic and rationalistic society that perhaps we can see where the waters of the earth come from that can always water and give us a good path between various achievements that we suppose Believing in God in a simple way or blind devotion of certain integrity that are thrown into society as an anger always shows to human beings that we are in a phase of moral recognition and that our dignities come from a great and deep recognition with mother nature which probably always sends us to social doors to achieve a definitive task in which we can always define what we are and what we want in life because life would be something more relative to the realistic system of living and we put our evidence in a way of accomplishing something common our wills that we can supposedly see and believe that we are made for each other and the world would not be so logical and disloyal to human behavior that supposedly it itself throws itself into pessimism as proof of the fight against the voraciousness of life and life would no longer be so disloyal to the human being who was born today and is alive and will die tomorrow as a relativity of life that we can now see and understand all the moral and social issues that can inhibit the good ways of recognizing and knowing the world in a more coherent way and formatively well-questioned mind to a great socialist understanding that we suppose we are living in a radical way to the labor regime that has always multiplied all the activities of the human being in life and today's man is better structured and goes around the world under a construction more creative rationalist to live and understand all the issues that infiltrate the capable and civilized man of live and understand his dilemmas between various aspects and desires to know the world among his dreams and fantasies that are always giving him more esteem for life and empowering him with certain ways of living and seeing life and the world recognizes him and he just has to recognize ourselves better because we are familiar with a social existence that makes us progress or give up on the resumption of life that surprises us and makes us understand our extinct ones that makes us grow, work and live and that human nature always helps us in the good will of high esteem while we are blessed with all perfect and imperfect accesses that help life and give us existence under a great relationship between the human being and nature and life proposes us to recognize ourselves deeply in a more realistic relationship of relating to life and Here we can see how the world began from the beginning until today in which society is stuck in various personalistic ways of staying and living life that prevent us from certain certain pleasures of living and working and man has learned to conquer the world and all the sciences kept him ahead of a fraternity of diagnosing life and its limits of living and today we can say that we understand life better and know how to live its daily doses of commitments and its fatalities makes us go back to the time that would be more conducive to the exit of great ideas and the entry of great defects that we can see today and we have an idea of ​​life and death that plagues us as time passes through various distortions of life where man would be a machine facing a challenge of building his existence about life and life would perhaps be consequently your purpose of relating to any things that can divide you and increase you about a wide variety of certain setbacks that makes you love, hate and live that we can say that the world would not be perfect just There would only be an idea left for human beings to delve deeper into a bigger and better world so that we can unveil great mysteries and cures for humanity and life can be an alchemistic relativity of a passive reaction that will always be forming us and taking us through life and proposed to us various conditions that lead us to progress or lose something relatively common or unusual with a state of time and reaction of struggle and work that makes us gain or lose how much the independence of life can cool us down on various purposes of living and containing ourselves because life is a reaction composed of artifacts that proliferates us under various disciplines that makes us react in life and life would be something relatively to maintain, build and know because we can now be delving deeper into this story because the logic of maturation on great tests and constructions that we learn here to commonly value life and its memories that are realistic and tell us several questions that man always values ​​the content of each word that are expressions that make us recognize his high esteem and commitment to his value that we conceives of conquering the world and its virtues that are and can show us life better.

I simply want to talk about a notion that involves us with all the atmospheres that in the law apply to various questions that we suppose to say that the world may have come from a vibrational set of certain ideas that are extinguished in various ways and formations that put us and It dazzles, under a great question of appreciating time and its modalities, that supposedly we can be living here today a great constitutional variety of certain habits and fundamental concepts that have been formalized since the beginning of the world until the present day in which we see the human being passing and behaves in different ways that we can now understand where it all started and I want to talk here about several religions that in my opinion have taken on various issues for the maturation of human beings in life regarding various distortions that prevent us from surviving and achieve life better, as well as politics has always infected human beings in a threefold more positive and realistic way of living and that there can also be great contradictions on their part that we can rarely observe this issue of the human being who is born to believe and do things things due to faith in the holy spirit as there is more light among men who throw themselves into the most penalistic and rationalistic society that perhaps we can see where the waters of the earth come from that can always water and give us a good path between various achievements that we suppose Believing in God in a simple way or blind devotion of certain integrity that are thrown into society as an anger always shows to human beings that we are in a phase of moral recognition and that our dignities come from a great and deep recognition with mother nature which probably always sends us social ports. Here I show several stories that tell the whole relativity of human beings with life and their relationships with society in general and here we begin in depth with a good reading of life and the world and how it all began between wars that perhaps preserved several nations, as well as formalizing the politics and religion with certain guidelines that involve us with social and global plans and here a story truly begins like the story of the life that began the world.

History of the world

World history describes the history of humanity as determined by archaeological studies and historical records. Ancient recorded history begins with the invention of writing.

Origin of humanity

See main articles: Prehistory and Human evolution

There are certain doubts about who exactly our most remote ancestors were. Modern humans only emerged about 200,000 years ago. Humans are primates and emerged in Africa; two species that belonged to the beginnings of hominid evolution were Sahelanthropus tchadensis, with a mix of human and simian characteristics, and Orrorin tugenensis, already bipedal, but the size of the brain is not known, which in Sahelanthropus was 320–380 cm cubic. Both existed more than 6 million years ago. Hominids at the time inhabited sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia and Tanzania, that is, East Africa. These first hominids were followed by the Ardipithecus and later (4.3 million years ago to 2.4 million years ago) the Australopithecus, descendants of the Ardipithecus. They (australopithecines) had larger brains, longer legs, smaller arms, and facial features more similar to ours.

2.5 million years ago the genus Homo, Homo habilis, appeared in eastern Africa, with which they began to use stone tools entirely made by them (starting the Paleolithic) and meat became more important in the diet of Homo habilis. They were hunters and had a larger brain (590–650 cubic cm), but they had long arms.

But H. habilis weren't just hunters, they were also scavengers and herbivores.

There were other species like Homo rudolfensis which had a larger brain and was bipedal and existed during the same time as Homo habilis. Two million years ago Homo erectus appeared: with a strong constitution, with a much larger brain (810–1,250 cubic cm), a broad face and was the first hominid to leave Africa, existing in Africa, Asia and Europe, existing until 500 thousand years. He is the first to use fire. 300,000 years ago, there were already elaborate hunting strategies for large mammals.

The ice age began 1.5 million years ago.

Human migrations across the globe (numbers indicate millennia before our era)

Some 50 thousand years ago, human beings set out to conquer the planet in different directions from Africa. One course reached Australia. The other arrived in Central Asia, to soon divide into two, one in Europe, and the other walked until it crossed the Bering Strait and reached North America. The last areas to be colonized were the Polynesian islands, during the first millennium.

Neanderthals were robust, with a large brain, and lived in Europe and western Asia. They survived until 24,000 years ago and coexisted with modern Homo sapiens sapiens, despite DNA studies proving that they could not reproduce with each other.

The origin of today's Homo Sapiens is hotly debated, but most scientists support the Mitochondrial Eve theory, supported by genetic testing, rather than the multiregional evolution theory that argues that modern humans evolved all over the world at the same time from of the Homo species that existed there and that reproduced among themselves between the various migrations that they supposedly made. The first fully human fossils were found in Ethiopia and date back approximately 160,000 years.

Around 35 thousand years ago, Paleolithic art emerged in Europe. It consisted of paintings on the walls of the caves, and small sculptures were made in wood or stone, representing fertility symbols several times.

Emergence of civilization

Agricultural revolution

See main article: Neolithic revolution

10 thousand years ago BC, there was practically no agriculture, but in 6 thousand years the groups of humans with the capacity to raise animals and cultivate plants would become producers. Agriculture was invented in various parts of the world, commonly at different times, independently of other areas.

First it was in the Middle East, more precisely in the Fertile Crescent, in 10 thousand BC, where it spread to various areas of the world, such as North Africa (excluding Egypt) and the Balkans 6 thousand BC.

The main reason for the invention of agriculture was the reduction of hunting areas such as forests, and their subsequent transformation into barren deserts, with the rise in sea levels caused by the end of the ice age, 14 thousand years ago, which ended due to to changes in the Earth's orbit. The temperature rose by 7ºCelsius and the sea level by 25 s in just 500 years. 8 thousand years ago the main melting would have been practically completed. The traditional migration lifestyle became too risky, and many people had to climb mountains or get closer to rivers and lakes. First cities: Uruk, Eridu, Abydos, Hieracompolis. The first two were located in Mesopotamia and the second, in Upper Egypt. Related articles: urbanization, city.

Drawing of an ox-drawn plow found in Egypt.

• Celestial disk of Nebra.

• An old boat used in ancient expeditions (Galé).

Social structure

It was thanks to the advent of agriculture and the domestication of animals that allowed many people to settle in villages and towns and stay there all year round. It was also with the change to agriculture that jobs not associated with food production emerged, as for the first Once there was enough food to feed everyone, even those who were not directly dedicated to providing it. It also allowed many people to have a greater number of children. Those who did not specialize in agriculture were able to become artisans, merchants, and bureaucrats creating artifacts such as jewelry, pottery, and clothing. They were able to dedicate themselves to creating new technologies such as the wheel and metallurgy.

Metals

See main article: Age of Metals

A Metal Age ax made of iron

Copper smelting was invented around 8 thousand years ago.

Metallurgy emerged in Anatolia and Mesopotamia (present-day Turkey and Iraq) in approximately 5,000 BC, and until 4,000 BC it spread to the Iranian plateau, Caucasus and Nile delta, until 3,000 BC it went south from Europe, from Poland and Germany, France, the British Isles, and then until 2000 BC to Denmark, the rest of Poland, part of the Baltic countries and Belarus.

Culture and religion

The first religious manifestations emerged in the times of Neanderthal man, 60 thousand years ago.

Fertile Crescent

Map of the location of the fertile crescent

See main article: Fertile Crescent

The Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle East and North Africa, was where agriculture first emerged and also one of the first places where metallurgy was invented. It was the place where several of the first great civilizations and cities emerged. It was initially inhabited by the Natufienses, a people who suffered the catastrophic effects of the thaw, such as droughts, as they were great hunters and fed on wild berries. Experts think that it was the Natufiense women, who, faced with the risk of hunger, stored the best seeds they had, and there are those who say that this was what led to the spread of agriculture. The Natufienses also used agricultural tools, such as sickles and pickaxes. As the wild plants they ate disappeared, they were forced to cultivate the easier-to-grow seeds, which they planted on hillsides. The Natufienses were also the first to domesticate the wolf.

Formation of empires

The first civilizations emerged in the Fertile Crescent region and the Indus River valley, regions suitable for agriculture. Development led to the formation of large cities that would lead to the formation of States. Normally these cities were located at the foot of large rivers.

Mesopotamia

See main article: Mesopotamia

Cuneiform writing

Mesopotamia (the name "Mesopotamia" helps to understand the place. The word Mesopotamia, of Greek origin, means "between rivers") is located between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in southwest Asia, in an area that is today Iraq, southwestern Iran, eastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, around 5,000 years ago.

Mesopotamian agriculture depended on the rich sediments that river waters brought. The marshes produced fish, birds and reeds that were used to make roofs. As they needed irrigation and land use schemes, they needed the organized command of many people. This is thought to have laid the foundations of what is thought to be the first stratified society. Mesopotamian civilization was centered in southern cities, in a region called Sumer. In Mesopotamia there were several city states, usually linked commercially and diplomatically, which sometimes cooperated with each other, while others competed. Among the large cities, we can mention Uruque, Kish, Ur and Acadia, which sometimes gained control of the territory.

This decentralized society that existed in 3000 BC ceased to exist, being replaced by a centralized hierarchy, controlled by "all-powerful" rulers, who were not usually considered divine. Sumptuous royal palaces also appeared. To support such a society a class of bureaucrats, scribes and merchants was needed. It was an urban society in which inhabitants lived in houses made from local earthen bricks, mud plaster and wooden doors. A lot of labor was needed to manage the large irrigation and construction projects and cultivate the land.

Religion was intertwined with politics, and some cities were swam by priests.

They were poor in natural resources, such as stone and metal, and thus had the need to establish commercial ties with a region that went as far as the Indus Valley and the Persian Gulf. Its numerical system was based on the number 60, and it still survives in the division of time and the 360º circle.

Sumerians

See main article: Sumeria

Statue of Gudeia, governor of Lagash, one of the most beautiful pieces of Sumerian sculpture and of all Mesopotamian art (Louvre Museum, Paris)

Sumer (in the Bible, Sinar; from Akkadian Šumeru; in Sumerian: ki-en-ĝir15, something like "land of civilized kings" or "native land") was an ancient civilization and the name given to the historical region inhabited by this civilization , in southern Mesopotamia, present-day southern Iraq and Kuwait, during the Copper Age (or Chalcolithic) and early Bronze Age. Although the earliest written records of the region date back no further than around 3500 BC, modern historians suggest that Sumer was permanently settled between around 5500 and 4000 BC by a non-Semitic people who may or may not have spoken the language. Sumerian (using the names of cities, rivers and basic occupations as evidence for this). These prehistoric people about whom it was conjectured are currently called "proto-Euphrateans" or "Ubaids", and, according to some theories, they would have evolved from the Samarra culture, from northern Mesopotamia (Assyria). The Ubaids were the first civilizational force in Sumer, draining the swamps to practice agriculture, developing trade and establishing industries, including weaving, leather and metal working, masonry and ceramics. Some scholars, however, such as Piotr Michalowski, professor of Ancient Near Eastern Languages ​​and Civilizations at the University of Michigan, and German scholar Gerd Steiner, dispute the idea of ​​a Proto-Euphratean language or a substratum language. Both they and others have suggested that the Sumerian language was the language originally spoken by the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshes and coastal region of Eastern Arabia, and belonged to the Arabic bifacial culture. Reliable historical records appear only much later; none of them have been dated before the Enmebaragesi period (c. 26th century BC). American archaeologist of Latvian origin Juris Zariņš believes that the Sumerians were a people who inhabited the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, in the Persian Gulf, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age.

Acadians

See main articles: Akkad (Mesopotamia) and Akkadian Empire

Babylonians

See main article: Babylon (region)

Babylon was a great city in ancient Asia, located in Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates where it approaches the Tigris River. Babylon had its first great empire in 2000 BC, and after several invasions and other empires it ended up being dismantled by the Persians, after a revolt in 486 BC.

The Tower of Babel, by Pieter Brueghel.

• Representation of the hanging gardens of Babylon, as imagined by Martin Heemskerck.

• American soldiers in front of the reconstruction of the ruins of Babylon (2003).

Assyrians

See main article: Assyria

The Assyrians were a Semitic people who inhabited northern Mesopotamia. His empire reached its peak between 800 BC and 700 BC, this was the Neo-Assyrian era, built on the foundations of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1350–1,000 BC). The middle empire possessed many resources and great wealth. Irrigation and agriculture also improved. He built imposing buildings and created important administrative centers.

These Neo-Assyrians were famous as fierce warriors, capable of innovative military feats. Thanks to this they managed to expand their territory. They had an army that was a mixture of chariots, cavalry and infantry and already used iron weapons. His army included professional soldiers, including foreign mercenaries sent by the king, and were paid from local tax revenues.

The Assyrians used horrible methods, such as mass execution, impalement, etc., against those who opposed them. They also sponsored large mass migrations by offering land and assistance. Thus the center of the empire became very multicultural. They were a monarchy, being divided into provinces governed by those appointed by the king. The majority of the population offered the local lord services and goods in exchange for protection. There was also a good system of communication routes, which included a system of roads that the future Achaemenid Empire would also have.

His empire included southeast Anatolia, Phoenicia and Israel, Babylon, and obviously Assyria and some parts of Iran. The empire, after internal divisions, was defeated by the Babylonians and the Medes, who conquered the city of Assur in 614 B.C..

The Assyrian Empire in 824 BC (dark green) and 671 BC (light green).

An Assyrian winged bull.

Chaldeans

See main article: Chaldeans

Ancient Egypt

See main article:

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of Eastern Antiquity in North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, in what is today the modern country of Egypt. It was part of a complex of civilizations, the "Nile Valley Civilizations", which also included the regions south of Egypt, currently in Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. Its borders were the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Libyan Desert to the west, the Eastern African Desert to the east, and the first cataract of the Nile to the south. Ancient Egypt was one of the first great civilizations of Antiquity and maintained, during its existence, continuity in its political, artistic, literary and religious forms, explainable in part due to geographical constraints, although cultural influences and contacts with foreign countries were also A reality.

Egyptian civilization came together around 3,100 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, under the first pharaoh (Narmer), and developed over the following three millennia.

Egyptian society

Egyptian religion

The ancient Egyptians were polytheists, and the desire to please the gods greatly influenced their lives. They believed that the god Osiris judged life after death and made those who had led a "good life" pass among the gods. The cult of Osiris developed in the ancient empire. After the collapse of the ancient empire the cult of Osiris continued. Before him Ra was the main god.

Old Kingdom (r. 3200–2 300 BC)

The people's activity was agriculture, and the communes of peasants who cultivated the land were headed by councils of elders, who organized the collection of taxes and the mandatory recruitment of workers for the "royal projects". Slaves in Ancient Egypt used to work on the large properties belonging to the Pharaoh's temples and courtiers. The pharaohs were the kings of the entire country and their main advisor was called the vizier and directed all the other bureaucrats that administered the country. The military campaigns against Sinai and Nubia brought the country good spoils of war, such as slaves and gold, ivory, etc. In the ancient empire there was a habit of pharaohs building pyramids to be buried in, the largest of all, that of Cheops, being 145 meters high.

When at the end of the Old Kingdom, centralized power began to weaken, the country became divided into nomees that occasionally warred with each other. Egypt reunited at the beginning of the 20th century BC, with the Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom (2040–1730 BC)

See main article: Middle Kingdom[42]

In the 22nd century BC, the rulers of Thebes asserted their power and founded the XI dynasty, the Mentuhoep, beginning the Middle Kingdom, with its capital in Thebes. Irrigation and containment canals were expanded and agricultural areas grew. Commerce also developed, as did various types of crafts.

In the Middle Kingdom, several peasant communes became impoverished and ruined. In the middle of the 18th century BC, there was a widespread revolt of slaves, artisans and peasants, the revolt affected the entire country, the large landowners were expelled from their palaces and the pharaoh abdicated. There was looting of tombs and pyramids; temples and granaries conquered and the king's riches divided among the people. All tax documents were destroyed. Then there was an invasion by the Hyksos, who controlled Egypt for a century and a half. The New Kingdom began when a liberation movement liberated Egypt.

New Kingdom (1580–525 BC)

Tutankhamun's funeral mask. Cairo Egyptian Museum.

• Egyptian drawing of a pharaoh.

• Egyptian representation of the god Anubis.

• Sphinx of Giza.

• Egyptian drawing on papyrus.

• Map of Ancient Egypt at the time of the New Kingdom.

• Temple of Edfu dedicated to the god Horus, a work built during the Ptolemeic era.

Hellenes

See main article: Aegean Civilization

Hebrews

See main article: Hebrews

Reconstitution of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Achaemenid Empire

See main article: Achaemenid Empire

• Achaemenid Empire ca. 500 BC

Persian religion

• The Faravahar (or Ferohar), representation of the human soul before birth and after death, is one of the symbols of Zoroastrianism.

Phoenicians

See main article: Phoenicia

The Phoenicians were the Semitic people of the Syrian coast, their most famous cities were Árados, Simira, Berito, Acre, Tire and Sidon.

A small sculpture of Phoenician origin.

Phoenician alphabet and the current one.

Ancient China

See main article: History of China

The first dynasty, Xia is somewhat mythical. Chinese tradition says that humans have their origins in parasites in the body of the creator, Pangu. After his death, wise rulers introduced the fundamental inventions and institutions of human society. 1900 BC was the year of the first cities discovered in China.

The oldest record of China's past dates back to the Shang Dynasty, possibly in the 13th century BC, in the form of inscriptions from winemaking on bones or animal shells, according to Chinese tradition, began in 1766 and ended in 1,122 BC.

According to tradition, the Zhou dynasty reigned between 1122 and 256 BC. This enormous period is divided into Western Zhou, from 1122 to 771 BC, and Eastern Zhou, which is further subdivided into the Spring and Autumn periods, from 771 to 481 BC, and of the Warring States, from 481 to 221 BC.

The capital of the Zhou was near present-day Xi'an. At the height of the Zhou's power, China reached as far north as Mongolia.

Historians usually call the period between the beginning of the Qin Dynasty (3rd century BC) and the end of the Qing Dynasty (at the beginning of the 20th century) Imperial China. In 230 BC, the Qin State began the various campaigns that led to the unification of China. The other states formed alliances to try to prevent its advance, and in 227 BC there was an assassination attempt on King Zheng (Qin Shi Huangdi). Resistance efforts faltered and in 221 BC King Zheng of the Qin state assumed the title Qin Shi Huangdi, first emperor of the Qin Dynasty.

Han Dynasty

See main article: Han Dynasty

The Han dynasty lasted from 206 BC to 220 AD, founded by Liu Bang (later Gaozu) and with a powerful centralized state and good civil servants, the first Han emperors applied the death penalty less frequently, taxes became one-thirtieth of individual income and Confucianism became a state religion. In the 8th AD, Wang Mang took power from the child emperor and made several reforms such as declaring that all land was the property of the state, and limiting the size of land, with those that were too large being confiscated, slaves also became state property and Wang Mang also tried to regulate the price and monopolize raw materials. The rich opposed the reforms made. In 18 AD there was a peasant revolt led by Fang Chung, a "revolt of the red eyebrows" that defeated Wang Mang's army in 25 AD. Later the Han dynasty would be restored by the aristocracy. In 184 AD there would be a new peasant revolt ("revolt of the yellow ribbons" led thanks to Juang Chao and his brothers, who wanted equality for all, which had a few hundred thousand men. It was a strong fight that lasted 2 years, which although crushed, it would make China disintegrate again.

In the 1st century there was great technological progress, during which paper was invented by Cai Lun.

Ancient India

See main article: History of India

The Great Living Chola Temples, built by the Chola Empire during the 11th and 12th centuries.

The Stone Age paintings in the Bhimbetka Rock shelters in Madya Pradesh are the oldest known footprints of human life in India. The first permanent human settlements appeared more than nine thousand years ago and little by little developed into what is now known as the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished around 3,300 BC, in the west of present-day Indian territory. . After its fall, the Vedic civilization began, which embraced the foundations of Hinduism and other aspects of Indian society, a period that ended in 500 BC, where many independent kingdoms and other states known as "Mahajanapadas" were established throughout the country.

In the 3rd century BC, most of South Asia was conquered by Chandragupta Máuria, to unite them with the Mauryan Empire, in which it flourished under the command of Ashoka. From the 3rd century onwards, the Gupta Empire led the empire into a period of prosperity known as "The Golden Age in India".

Ancient Japan

See main article: History of Japan

Horyu-ji, one of the oldest wooden buildings in the world, is a national treasure and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Human occupation of Japan dates back to the Paleolithic, and the most consensual date for the first human presence in this archipelago is 35,000 BC, when hunter-gatherer people arrived on the islands from the mainland through isthmuses. The first Japanese chipped stone tools date back to that time, and polished stone tools date back to 30,000 BC, making them the oldest in the world. It is still not known why these tools appeared so early in Japan. In 1985, divers discovered submerged structures in Yonaguni, Okinawa, which attracted many historians, archaeologists and scientists to the archaeological site, where they carried out studies to date them. They came to the conclusion that the monuments are more than 11,000 years old, the oldest in the world. Scientists confirm that these monuments found submerged off the coast of Japan are evidence that an unknown civilization may have existed before the Stone Age. The first ceramic culture and civilization to develop in Japan was the nomadic Jomon people who did not develop agriculture or animal husbandry. Between 250 BC and 250 AD, the nomadic Yayoi culture, coming from Kyushu, replaced the previous one and brought the cultivation of rice, metal tools and clothing making.

Japan was first unified in the 4th century by the Yamato People and soon undertook the conquest of the Korean peninsula at the end of the century. In the following centuries, competition for government positions gradually weakened Japanese dominance over Korea until the 6th century. In 552, Buddhism was introduced into the country from Korea and served as a political weapon against the growing power of the priests. After the death of Emperor Shotoku in 622 and a period of civil wars, Emperor Kōtoku began the Taika reform that would create a state with powers concentrated in the hands of an emperor surrounded by a bureaucracy, similar to the Tang Dynasty in China. In 710, the Japanese capital was transferred from Asuka to Nara, a replica of the Chinese capital at the time, beginning a new period in Japanese history in which Chinese culture and technology had greater influence and Buddhism spread with the creation of temples by part of the emperor in the main regions.

Ancient Africa

See main article: History of Africa

Map of African civilizations before European colonization.

Ancient Greece

See main article: Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is the term generally used to describe the Greek world and nearby areas (such as Cyprus, Anatolia, southern Italy, France and the Aegean coast, as well as Greek settlements on the coasts of other countries, such as Egypt). Traditionally, Ancient Greece ranges from 1,100 BC (the period after the Doric invasion) until Roman domination in 146 BC, however it must be remembered that the history of Greece begins in the Paleolithic period, going through the Bronze Age with the Cycladic (3000-2000 BC), Minoan (3000-1400 BC) and Mycenaean (1600-1200 BC) civilizations; some authors use another period, the pre-Homeric period (2000-1200 BC), to incorporate yet another historical section into Ancient Greece.

Minoan world

See main article: Minoan Civilization

Ruins of the Palace of Knossos, Crete

Fresco from the Palace of Knossos.

Greek culture

See main article: Ancient Greece#Culture

Ancient Rome

See main article: Ancient Rome

Monarchy and Roman Republic

According to the legend of Romulus and Remus, Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the same time, a group of villages on the top of the hill on the Tiber River became the city of Rome. Then between 616 and 510 BC it was a monarchy, where the Etruscans held power over the northern city-states. Tarquínio Priscus was the first king of the city. In 510 BC, they expelled the last king, Tarquin. Then Rome became a republic that lasted until 31 BC. In 451 BC the first code of Roman law was created. In 340-338 BC, he began to dominate the Latium region. In 264-241 BC, in the first Punic war, fought against the Carthaginians, he definitively conquered Sicily. In the Second Punic War, Scipio defeats Hannibal, who invaded Italy.

In 149-146 BC the third Punic war took place, in which Carthage was completely destroyed, and Rome became the most powerful country in the Mediterranean. In 73-71 BC, Spartacus led a failed revolt against Rome. In 60 BC, Julius Caesar, Pompey and Licinius Crassus held a triumvirate. In 55 BC, Julius made the first expeditions to Britannia. Julius Caesar becomes dictator in 49 BC, until he is assassinated in 44 BC.

Roman Empire

See main article: Roman Empire

The Roman Empire began in 27 BC with Octavian, receiving the title of Augustus (emperor), the empire would end in 476, with the conquest of Rome by Odoacer.

Roman culture

See main article: Culture of Ancient Rome

Christianity

See main article: Christianity

See also: Impact of Christianity on civilization

Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus, who would die in 30 years, as recorded in the Gospels, an integral part of the New Testament. Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah and as such refer to him as Jesus Christ.

With around 2.13 billion adherents, Christianity is today the largest world religion. It is the predominant religion in Europe, America, Oceania and much of Africa and parts of Asia.

Christianity began in the 1st century and would be authorized in the Roman Empire by Constantine in the Edict of Milan in 313 as a sect of Judaism, therefore sharing sacred texts with this religion, specifically the Tanaque, which Christians call the Old Testament. Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is considered an Abrahamic religion.

Christianity (Roman Catholicism, more specifically) would become the official religion of the Roman Empire after all pagan cults were banned by Theodosius in 391-392.

According to the New Testament, Jesus' followers were first called "Christians" in Antioch (Acts 11:26).

Fall of the Roman Empire

See main article: Fall of the Roman Empire

The fall of the Western Roman Empire occurred due to barbarian invasions which began with a movement of the Huns, a nomadic tribe from the steppes of Central Asia who, in search of pastures and new lands, moved to the shores of the Black Sea and began to put pressure on several of the people who lived there, such as the Visigoths, who asked the Roman Empire for help and permission to settle there. There were wars between the Goths and the Romans, and for a fifth century there was almost uninterrupted looting of the empire. In 476 Rome would be conquered by Odoacer, and the last emperor Romulus Augustus deposed. The Eastern Roman Empire would last until 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottomans.

Islam

See main article: Islam

Islam or Islam (from the Arabic الإسلام, transl. al-Islām) is a monotheistic religion that emerged in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century, based on the religious teachings of the prophet Muhammad (Muhammad) and a sacred scripture, the Qur'an. The religion is still known as Islam.

Tang Dynasty of China

See main article: Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty lasted from 618 to 907, during this dynasty China expanded and Chinese arts flourished, encouraged by Emperor Xuanzong. Chang'an was the largest city in the world with more than a million inhabitants. At this time the printing press was invented and Buddhism rose, until it was repressed in the last Tang period.

Byzantine Empire

See main article: Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire (or Byzantium) was the Eastern Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centered on its capital, Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire (Greek: آلَéëهكل Ῥùىلكùي, Basel Rhōmaiōn) or Romania (Ῥùىليكل, Rhōmanيa) by its inhabitants and neighbors, the empire was the direct continuation of the ancient Roman State. It is today distinguished from Ancient Rome in that the empire was oriented by Greek culture, characterized by a Christian state church, and predominance of the Greek language in contrast to the Latin language.

As the distinction between the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire is largely a modern convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, although an important point is the transfer, in 324, by Emperor Constantine I of the capital of Nicomedia (in Anatolia). ) to Byzantium on the Bosphorus, which became Constantinople, "City of Constantine" (alternatively "New Rome"). The Roman Empire was finally divided in 395, after the death of Emperor Theodysius I (r. 379–395), making this date very important for the Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire), as it became completely separate from the Western.

The Byzantine Empire ended when on May 29, 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and the city became their capital.

Song Dynasty of China

See main article: Song Dynasty

The Song dynasty began in 960 founded by Zhao Kuangyin. He would make Kaifeng the capital. In 1067-1100 there would be influence struggles between the reformers (Wang Anshi) and the conservatives (Sima Guang). In northern China the Jin dynasty would appear, who would later make a peace treaty with the Song. The Jin dynasty would be completely conquered by the Mongols in 1234, as the Chinese allied with them. The Song dynasty would be conquered in 1279, and its last emperor.

Mongol Empire

After 1260 it disintegrated into the kingdoms:

Khanate of the Golden Horde

Chagatai Khanate

Ilcanato

Yuan Dynasty

See main article: Mongol Empire

The Mongol State was founded in 1206, when Temujim adopted the name Genghis Cم. In 1215 they conquered the capital of the Jim Empire, Beijing, and progressively conquered Northern China. In 1219-1223 they invaded the Muslim world and the Russian steppes. In 1227, Genghis Cم dies.

Medieval Europe

See main article: Middle Ages

The Middle Ages began in Europe with the Germanic invasions of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. This era lasted until the 10th century. The Middle Ages are characterized by a ruralized economy, weakening of trade, supremacy of the Catholic Church, feudal production system and hierarchical society. In the Middle Ages, anyone accused of witchcraft would be burned, usually if they had any cats, especially black ones, they would also be burned for superstitions. Another thing that marked the Middle Ages was the Black Death, a pandemic that killed more than millions of people and occurred between 1346-53. The disease was caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, transmitted through fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) on black rats (Rattus rattus) or other rodents.

Way of life in feudalism.

Ming Dynasty

See main article: Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty began in China in 1368, the dynasty was proclaimed by Zhu Yuanzhang, a former peasant who became leader of the revolt against the Mongols. In 1370-1387 the entire territory would be liberated from the Mongols. In 1380 there would be purges, where Zhu Yuanzguang's comrade in arms, Hu Weiyang would be executed. In 1395, major works were carried out. In the years 1405-1433 there were large maritime expeditions that They would sail across the China Sea, southeast Asia and the east coast of Africa, the leader of this expedition would be the Muslim eunuch Zheng He. In 1521 Beijing would become the capital. In 1449 there was an incursion by the Mongols and they took the emperor prisoner. In the 16th century there would also be pirate attacks. In the 16th and 17th centuries there would be fights between eunuchs and scholars. In 1644 the Ming dynasty ended, after peasant uprisings in 1627-1630. Li Zicheng's rebellion was the one that ended the dynasty.

Ottoman Empire

See main article: Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was founded by a group of Turkish warriors led by Ertugrul and his son Osmö I, in the 13th century, who arrived in Anatolia from the steppes of Central Asia. Ertugrul came to Anatia to help the sultan Selj ْ cida Caicosroes III, was rewarded with lands, which he added until they created, the Osman-li, or Ottoman Empire. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was finally taken by the Ottoman Empire, controlled by Muhammad I the Gentleman, who had led his army to this great city since 1451. The Ottomans conquered Serbia in 1458-59, Bosnia in 1463-64, waged war against Venice in 1463 to 1479, conquered Syria and Egypt in 1516-17, and in 1529 made a first siege of Vienna. The Ottoman Empire began to decline in 1750, officially ending in 1918.

Rebirth

See main article: Renaissance

Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man synthesizes the Renaissance ideology: humanist and classical.

Renaissance, Renaissance or Renaissance are the terms used to identify the period in European History approximately between the end of the 13th century and the middle of the 17th. Scholars, however, did not reach a consensus on this chronology, with considerable variations in the dates depending on the author. Be that as it may, the period was marked by transformations in many areas of human life, which mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age. Although these transformations are very evident in culture, society, economy, politics and religion, characterizing the transition from feudalism to capitalism and signifying a break with medieval structures, the term is more commonly used to describe their effects on the arts, philosophy and in the sciences.

It was called "Renaissance" due to the rediscovery and revaluation of cultural references from classical Antiquity, which guided the changes of this period towards a humanist and naturalist ideal. The term was first recorded by Giorgio Vasari in the 16th century, but the notion of Renaissance as we understand it today arose from the publication of Jacob Burckhardt's book The Culture of the Renaissance in Italy (1867), where he defined the period as a time of "discovery of the world and of man".

The cultural Renaissance first manifested itself in the Italian region of Tuscany, with the cities of Florence and Siena as its main centers, from where it spread to the rest of the Italian peninsula and then to practically all countries in Western Europe, driven by the development of the press by Johannes Gutenberg. Italy always remained the place where the movement showed greatest expression, but Renaissance manifestations of great importance also occurred in England, Germany, the Netherlands and, less intensely, in Portugal and Spain, and in their American colonies. Some critics, however, consider, for various reasons, that the term "Renaissance" should be limited to the Italian culture of that period, and that the European diffusion of classical Italian ideals belongs more appropriately to the sphere of Mannerism. Furthermore, studies carried out in recent decades have reviewed a number of historically established opinions regarding this period, considering them insubstantial or stereotyped, and seeing the Renaissance as a much more complex, contradictory and unpredictable phase than has been assumed over generations. .

Scientific Renaissance

See main article: Scientific revolution

During the 14th century, Universities in Europe went from 20 to 70. Thanks to these new universities, more scholars were able to discuss new ideas, theories, old or recent. These universities received students from other universities, so knowledge and ideas spread and were created more easily. With the printing press created in Europe by Gutenberg, books became more common. In 1453, a group of scholars fled Constantinople with several manuscripts, some of them Greek texts of great importance. In 1543 Copernicus published a book explaining his heliocentric theory. In the 17th century, Galileo proved Copernicus' theory and carried out some more astronomical studies. However, the Inquisition sentenced him to house arrest.

In order to have a Scientific Renaissance, it is necessary to quote and summarize the world history book that in this section is Source erve, 6 things:

1. A society rich enough to support a considerable group of people who spend their time reading, talking and carrying out experiments that may lead to nothing;

2. Opportunities for networking (such as universities or learned societies);

3. Access to accumulated knowledge, both ancient and recent, present in libraries and printed books;

4. Appropriate technology such as microscopes and telescopes;

5. Freedom of investigation, without censorship;

6. A culture in which research is a habit and challenging accepted ideas is the norm.

Protestant Reformation

See main article: Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a Christian reformist movement started in the 16th century by Martin Luther, who, through the publication of his 95 theses.

Discoveries

See main article: Age of Discoveries

Painting of the caravel Santa Maria.

Age of Discoveries or the Great Navigations are designations given to the period of history that took place between the 15th century and the beginning of the 17th century, during which Europeans intensively explored the globe in search of new trade routes. Historians generally refer to the "age of discovery" as the pioneering maritime explorations carried out by the Portuguese and Spanish between the 15th and 16th centuries, which were later followed by other European countries, such as France, England and the Netherlands.

When the Discoveries began, European knowledge of the world was little based on old maps made by Ptolemy, which did not include the New World and large parts of the world were simply poorly made. When new navigation instruments began to appear, the Portuguese began to sail along the African coast with their caravels. The boats returned full of slaves and gold, which motivated greater exploration of this coastline. Infante D. Henrique was a driving force behind the Portuguese discoveries and died in 1460, when the Portuguese had already sailed in the Gulf of Guinea. In 1486, Diogo Cمo, a Portuguese navigator, arrived in present-day Namibia, and in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias, a navigator from Portugal, rounded the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese navigator, arrived in the Americas. In 1494 Portugal and Spain jointly signed a treaty negotiated by Pope Alexander VI in which Spain would take the western part of a line that crosses the Atlantic and Brazil, and Portugal would take the eastern part. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, also a Portuguese navigator, arrived in Calicut, in present-day India, and in 1519 Ferdinand Magellan began a trip around the world that ended in 1521.

Pre-Columbian America

Aztecs

See main article: Aztecs

The Aztecs (13th century until 1521; the Aztec form is also used) were a Mesoamerican, pre-Columbian civilization, which flourished mainly between the 14th and 16th centuries, in the territory corresponding to current Mexico. Its capital was Tenochtitlan, the current city of Mexico founded in 1325 by the Nahua people on Lake Texcoco.

Aztec society was divided into classes, with the nobility at the top and the peasants at the bottom. Education was supposed to be universal and for both sexes. The boys also had military training. Their empire extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific in 1520. They were polytheists, related to the Sun, the creation of the Cosmos, death, fertility and war; between others.

The Aztec language was Nahuatl.

The Aztecs were defeated and their civilization destroyed by the Spanish conquerors, commanded by Fernando Cortez, surrendering in August 1521.

Incas

See main article: Inca Empire

Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu in Quechua) was a state created by the Inca civilization, the result of a succession of Andean civilizations and which became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America and the most centralized, having been founded in 1438 by Pachacuti, the first Sapa Inca , with the capital in Cuzco, in present-day Peru.

Mayans

See main article: Mayans

The Mayan Civilization flourished around 250 AD to 900 AD in the Yucatan Peninsula, having a government organized in city-states that maintained contact with all of Mesoamerica.

After the fall of the city of Teotihuacán, the Toltecs had dominated the mountainous regions of Mexico. They then moved to the Yucatan peninsula in about 930.

The late Mayan empire was made up of city-states ruled by the Toltecs. Between them there were several conflicts, first for the supremacy of Chichén Itzل and later for Mayapan with its clerical nobility. In the 15th century, revolts against the Toltecs began and caused political disintegration. The Mayans managed to resist Spanish control for a few years.

Brazilian people

See main article: Indigenous peoples of Brazil

Rise of capitalism

With the discoveries and the increase in long journeys across the planet, the world economy was stimulated. There began to be an increase in investments, as precious products were sold at high prices in the East, which gave large profits to Europeans. Sometimes there were big risks. In the Middle Ages, the economy could not develop much, as the Catholic Church prohibited loans at interest, a prohibition only lifted in the 15th century.

Enlightenment

See main article: Enlightenment

The Enlightenment had its origins in the Renaissance and Humanism. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe and surrounding areas in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason rather than superstition. He also defended the replacement of tyranny and injustice with tolerance and equality. One of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment was Adam Smith, who in his book The Wealth of Nations created the science of economics. Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert were the editorial coordinators of the Encyclopédie, an encyclopedia that aimed to explain knowledge in a clear and accessible way. However, the Enlightenment had a bad side, as it was an incentive for the atrocities of the French Revolution.

Population Evolution and Food Revolution

In 1500 there were around 470 million men and women in the world. The majority were concentrated in Europe (78 million), East Asia (in China, East Turkestan and Mongolia and Japan 94 million), and the Indian subcontinent (95 million). On the coasts of the Nile River there was also a great density of humans, as in the north of Nigeria and a little to the east. In the rest of sub-Saharan Asia the population is spread out, with few in southern Africa. In Peru and Mexico 15 million each. Over the next two hundred years, the population would increase significantly in Europe and Asia, remaining similar in Africa and decreasing in America.

In the middle of the 18th century, the creation of new agricultural methods, introduction of new plant species in various regions of the world, better methods of preserving food, innovative agricultural machines, created a food revolution that rapidly decreased the number of agricultural workers, the which freed up labor for cities and factories, ideal for starting the Industrial Revolution. The food revolution thus managed to feed a growing population.

Industrial Revolution

Watt's steam engine, the steam engine, powered mainly by coal, powered the Industrial Revolution in the UK and around the world.

See main article: Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began thanks to a series of technological and social transformations that transformed the Western world, which went from rural to urban, thus paving the way for the current capitalist world. The Revolution began in England because it had an abundance of natural resources, capital available at low interest rates and a growing middle class willing to invest more and more money, finally having a vast market to sell its products, its empire and its navy capable of moving around the world. The steam engine was also a great advantage.

The large investment in train lines reduced the price of transporting goods.

This transformation was possible due to a combination of factors, such as economic liberalism, capital accumulation and a series of inventions, such as the steam engine. Capitalism became the current economic system.

French Revolution

See main article: French Revolution

French Revolution is the name given to the set of events that, between July 9, 1789 and November 9, 1795, as France was bankrupt, the king had no authority, there were heavy taxes and an increase in the price of bread, and Still a rising bourgeoisie, this discontent led to a revolt that began with the formation of the national constituent assembly and the dismissal of the finance minister. The resignation of the finance minister caused three days of turmoil that lasted from July 11 to 14 and led to the seizure of Bastille prison. Then the revolt spread to the province and the peasants began to attack their masters. In 1789 and 1791 there were a series of political reforms, among them the Declaration of Human Rights.

XIX century

Napoleonic Wars

See main articles: Napoleonic Wars and Napoleon

Bonaparte

Napoleonic Wars (European Portuguese) or Napoleonic Wars (Brazilian Portuguese) is the name of the armed conflict that lasted from 1803 to 1815, opposing almost all the nations of Europe to Napoleon Bonaparte, heir to the French Revolution and military dictator.

Unification of Germany and Italy and the Second Reich

See main article: German Unification

German Unification was a process that began in the middle of the 19th century and ended in 1871, for the integration and subsequent unification of several German states into just one: Germany. The process was led by Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor, and culminated in the formation of the German Second Reich (Empire).

On January 18, 1871, German princes and senior military commanders proclaimed William I of Germany German emperor or at the Palace of Versailles.

Germany also managed to form a vast empire, possessing Togo, Cameroon, present-day Namibia, present-day Tanzania, northeastern New Guinea, and several other islands.

Italy would become independent and unified in 1871, with Rome as its capital, after the Italian army controlled by Garibaldi conquered Rome and adjacent territories on September 20, 1870.

The United States in the 19th century

In 1790, when the United States was newly independent, its population was 3.9 million. In 1800 it would be 5.3, in 1810, 7.2, in 1820, 9.6, in 1830, 12.9, in 1840, 17.1, in 1850, 23.2, in 1860, 31.4 million , in 1870, in 1880, 50.2 million, in 1890, 66.9, in 1900, 76, in 1910, 92, in 1920 105.7 in 1930 122.8 million, mainly thanks to emigration from foreign countries. The United States in the 19th century expanded greatly to the west, much at the expense of the native Amerindians and in 1861-1865 the industrial North of the United States was at war with the agricultural South (the Confederacy), because of the secession of the latter and the his slavery. The North won the war.

In 1873, a crisis occurred due to speculation on the railways. In 1876, the telephone was invented. In 1898 they began a war against Spain in Cuba and the Philippines. In the same year the United States would annex Hawaii.

Urbanization in the 19th century

In 1800 when the 19th century began, 35% of the world's population lived in cities, in 1900, 15%. In 1800, the 5 most populous cities were, in ascending order, Istanbul, Edo (currently Tokyo), Guangzhou, London and Beijing, the only one with more than a million inhabitants. In 1900 the largest cities were Chicago, with almost 2 million inhabitants, Berlin, with almost 3 million, Paris with just over 3, New York with just over 4 and London with six and a half million inhabitants. This large increase in urban population along with automobiles put the average speed of traffic at 25 km/h in London in 1900.

Technological innovation in the 19th century

In the 19th century, in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, multiple inventions of all kinds were invented, some of these inventions such as the photographic and later film cameras, typewriters, gramophones, predecessors of the record player, read grooved records, very cheap , the telegraph and later the telephone allowed human beings to record information and disseminate it very easily. What many of these inventions have in common is the fact that they use electricity. Of these inventions the electric telegraph was invented in 1837, the telephone in 1876, the typewriter in 1868.

The airplane was invented at the end of the 19th century, by Clément Ader, and later perfected by the Wright Brothers and Santos Dumont, the machine gun in 1860, the light bulb already existed in 1870, the can opener in 1860. In 1906 Guglielmo Marconi made the first radio broadcasts. The cash register appeared in 1879 to put an end to employee theft.

20th century

Beginning of the century

In 1900, the various European countries, having lost many of their colonies in America, began en masse to colonize Africa, Asia and Oceania. There were religious and ideological reasons to conquer these lands, but mainly it was due to the need for exotic resources and cheap labor. As Europe became increasingly populous, many Europeans emigrated to the new colonies or to the Americas. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, a large part of the world was dominated by Europeans or descendants of Europeans. World map of colonialism in 1800.

World map from 1914, showing control by the great European powers of vast areas of the world.

First World War

See main article: First World War

The First World War (also known as the Great War before 1939) was a worldwide conflict that occurred between July 28, 1914 and November 11, 1918.

The war took place between the Triple Entente - led by the British Empire, France, the Russian Empire (until 1917) and the United States (from 1917) - which defeated the Triple Alliance (led by the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Turkish Empire). Ottoman), and caused the collapse of four empires and radically changed the geo-political map of Europe and the Middle East.

In 1917, Russia abandoned the war due to the beginning of the Revolution. In the same year, the United States, which until then had only participated in the war as suppliers, upon seeing its investments in danger, entered the conflict militarily, completely changing the fate of the war and guaranteeing the victory of the Triple Entente.

Of the 65 million soldiers involved, 8.5 million died; It is also estimated that 6.6 million civilians died. The war ended on November 11, 1918.

Russian Revolution

See main article: Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a series of political events in Russia, which, after the elimination of the Russian autocracy, and then the Provisional Government (Duma), resulted in the establishment of Soviet power under the control of the Bolshevik party. The result of this process was the creation of the Soviet Union, which lasted until 1991.

1929 crisis

See main article: Great Depression

1929 crisis affects the economy

The Great Depression began with the crisis of October 1929 and persisted throughout the 1930s, ending only with the Second World War. It is considered the worst and longest period of economic depression in the 20th century. During this period, there were high unemployment rates and drastic drops in the gross domestic product of several countries. Industrial production fell violently, as did stock prices.

The crisis began with "Black Tuesday" (October 29, 1929) on Wall Street. In the deepest phase of the depression that followed, the unemployment rate of the active population in the United States reached 32%, in Germany 18% and in the United Kingdom 12%, in the years 1931-1932. In 1931, industrial production in the United States was only 60% of what it was in 1928. At first there would be deflation, then inflation.

Fascism

See main article: Fascism

Fascism is a radical nationalist political ideology, defending the authoritarianism of the state, and the value of race. In Europe, it emerged post-war, in several countries such as Germany, plagued by unemployment and instability, and the shame of defeat in the Great War, allowed the rise of Hitler. In Italy, the costs of World War I left the government weak and allowed Benito Mussolini to become leader.

Second World War

See main article: Second World War

Atomic bomb explosion over Nagasaki.

World War II or World War II was a global military conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations – including all the great powers – organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most comprehensive war in history, with more than 100 million soldiers mobilized. In a state of "total war", the main parties involved dedicated all their economic, industrial and scientific capacity to the service of war efforts, leaving aside the distinction between civil and military resources. Marked by a significant number of attacks against civilians, including the Holocaust and the only time nuclear weapons were used in combat, it was the deadliest conflict in human history, with more than seventy million deaths.

The starting point of the war is generally considered to be Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and subsequent declarations of war against Germany by France and most countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth. Some countries were already at war at this time, such as Ethiopia and the Kingdom of Italy in the Second Ethiopian-Ethiopian War and China and Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Many of those who were not initially involved ended up joining the conflict in response to events such as the German invasion of the Soviet Union and Japanese attacks on United States forces in the Pacific at Pearl Harbor and British overseas colonies, which resulted in declarations of war against Japan by the USA, the Netherlands and the British Commonwealth.

On July 11, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. There they confirm previous agreements regarding Germany and reiterate the demand for the unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is rapid and total destruction." During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaces Churchill as Prime Minister. As Japan continued to ignore the Potsdam terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets, in accordance with the Yalta agreement, invade Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeat the Guangdong Army, which was the main Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captures Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed on board the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, bringing an end to the war.

Cold War

"Buzz" Aldrin on the Moon

See main article: Cold War

Following the Second World War, the world polarized around the two winning powers of the war with the United States and capitalism on one side and the Soviet Union with socialism on the other. This period became known as the Cold War in which the superpowers competed for influence in the world without starting an open war against each other.

Although there never was a direct armed conflict between the two powers, they faced each other indirectly through the arms race, the space race and ideological discussions. The arms race following the idea of ​​mutual assured destruction led the powers to arming themselves to the point of "equilibrium of terror" in which both powers could destroy each other and the entire world several times over.

The powers also competed across the planet for regions of influence for their ideologies. An example of this was Europe, destroyed after the war, which became the target of investments from both sides seeking to guarantee their influence, such as the United States Marshall Plan. Most of Eastern Europe aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialism while Western Europe aligned itself with the United States and capitalism and the expression Iron Curtain appears to denote the division of Europe into these two areas of influence. Japan and South American governments aligned themselves with the United States.

Fall of the Berlin Wall.

In several armed conflicts that occurred during this period, one of the contenders ended up receiving sponsorship from a power in accordance with the ideology they defended. Some of the conflicts even had the involvement of powers, such as the Korean war, the Vietnam war, the Afghan war. The missile crisis in Cuba generates the biggest impasse between the powers during the Cold War.

However, the Soviet Union was going through social and economic problems and wear and tear became evident after the defeat in the space race when the United States put a man on the Moon and the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear plant. Two plans to reform the Soviet Union were launched by Mikhail Gorbachev: Glasnost and Perestroika. The military budget decreases.

As a result of these reforms that allowed greater openness and transparency, the Soviet bloc began to collapse with the fall of socialist regimes in the area of ​​influence of the Soviet Union in Europe. This situation led to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Years later, at the end of 1991, the Soviet Union would finally collapse, signaling the definitive end of the Cold War.

XXI century

September 11, 2001 attacks.

Digital Revolution

See main article: Digital revolution

During the Cold War, there was a great expansion in the development of new technologies such as the creation of the first electronic computers and mass media. In 1989, the World Wide Web was created by Tim Berners-Lee at Cern, which represented a new change in the forms of communication, industry and commerce; the most radical since the Industrial Revolution. The World Wide Web became widespread in the 21st century, with the expansion and cheaper infrastructure and the development of mobile computing.

Economic Globalization and Environmental Issues

See main article: Global warming

The 21st century has been marked by increasing economic globalization and integration, with the consequent increase in risk for interconnected economies, and by the expansion of communications with cell phones and the Internet. Worldwide, demand for and competition for natural resources has increased due to population growth and industrialization, especially in India, China and Brazil. This increased demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradation and a growing threat of global warming. Which in turn has stimulated the development of renewable energy sources (namely solar energy and wind energy), proposals for cleaner fossil fuels and expanded use of nuclear energy (somewhat mitigated by nuclear accidents), and, conversely, calls to avoid the large-scale indiscriminate employment of the "fissile-fissile complex" of fission-(nuclear) and fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) for power generation.

History of the Earth

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Note: This article is about relative scientific evidence about Earth's history. For the history of humanity, see World history.

History of the Earth with eons of time to scale.

The History of the Earth concerns the records of the development of planet Earth up to the present day. Almost all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of major events in Earth's past, characterized by the constant geological change and biological evolution.

The geological time scale, defined by international conversion, depicts the great periods of time from the beginning of the Earth to the present, and its divisions record some definitive events in the Earth's history. (In the graphic: Ga means "billions of years"; Ma, "millions of years".) The Earth was formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately a third of the age of the universe, by accretion of the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the early atmosphere, and then the ocean, but the early atmosphere contained almost no oxygen. Much of the Earth has been melted due to frequent collisions with other bodies, which led to extreme volcanism. While Earth was in its early stage (Proto-Earth), a gigantic impact collision with a planet-sized body called Theia is believed to have formed the Moon. Over time, Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust and allowing liquid water on the surface.

The Hadean ةon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life; It began with the formation of the planet and ended 4.0 billion years ago. The following Archean and Proterozoic eons quickly produced, within a few hundred million years, the beginning of life on Earth and its earliest evolution. The next era is the Phanerozoic, divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, an era of arthropods, fish and the first life on land; the Mesozoic, which measured the rise, reign and climatic extinction of non-avian dinosaurs; and the Cenozoic, which saw the rise of mammals.

Hominini, our earliest human-like ancestors, arose sometime during the latter part of the Miocene epoch; The emergence of the first ACEHC hominids is currently debated over a wide range of 13 to 4 million years ago. The Quaternary period that follows is the time humans were most recognizable, the genus Homo, but this two million year term is very small on the ETG graphic scale.

The first indisputable evidence of life on Earth dates back to at least 3500 million years ago, during the Eoarchaean Era, after a geological crust began to solidify after the previously molten Hadean eon. There are microbial mat fossils like stromatolites found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is from graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwest Greenland, as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "if life emerged relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe."

Photosynthetic organisms emerged between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began to enrich the atmosphere with oxygen. Life remained small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago, when complex multicellular life emerged, evolved over time, and culminated in the Cambrian Explosion about 541 million years ago. This event brought the rapid diversity of life forms on Earth that produced most of the major phyla known today and marked the end of the Proterozoic Eon and the beginning of the Paleozoic Period of the Cambrian Era. More than 99 percent of all species, totaling more than five million species, that have ever lived on Earth are estimated to have become extinct. Estimates of the current number of terrestrial species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million are documented, but more than 86 percent are undescribed. Scientists recently reported that an estimated 1 trillion species are on Earth right now, with only one thousand and one percent accounted for.

The Earth's crust has been constantly changing since its formation. Likewise, life has been constantly changing since its first appearance. Species continue to evolve, take on new forms, split off daughter species, or become extinct in the process of adaptation or die in response to the constantly changing physical environment. Plate tectonic processes continue to shape Earth's continents, oceans, and the life they inhabit. Human activity is now the dominant force influencing global change, affecting the biosphere, Earth's surface, hydrosphere and atmosphere, with loss of wild lands, exploitation of the oceans, emissions of greenhouse gases, reduction of the layer of ozone and general deterioration in soil, air and water quality.

ةons

In geochronology, time is usually measured in Ma (mega-annum or million years ago), each unit representing a period of about 1,000,000 years ago. Earth's history is divided into four main eons, beginning 4.54 million with the formation of the planet. Each eon sees the most significant changes in Earth's composition, climate, and life. Each aeon is then divided into eras, which are in turn divided into periods, which are further divided into epochs.

ةon Time (Ma) Event

Hadean

4,540–4,000 Earth is formed from debris surrounding the disk of the solar protoplanet. Without life. Temperatures are very high, with frequent volcanic activity and a hellish environment (hence the son's name, which comes from Hades). The atmosphere is hazy. Perhaps a primeval ocean or a corpse of liquid water. The moon formed at this time, probably due to the collision of a protoplanet with the Earth.

Archaean

4,000–2,500 The life of prokaryotes, the first forms of life, arose at the beginning of this era, in a process gone as abiogenesis. The continents of Ur, Vaalbara and Kenorland may have formed at this time. The atmosphere is made up of volcanic gases and greenhouses.

Proterozoic

2,500–541 Eukaryotes, more complex forms of life, emerged, including several forms of multicellular organisms. Bacteria begin to produce oxygen, forming Earth's third and current atmosphere. Plants, livestock, and possibly earlier forms of fungi at this time. The early and late phases of this eon may have experienced a "snowball Earth" period, during which all planets experience subzero temperatures. The first continents Colombia, Rodnia and Pantia may have formed at this time.

Phanerozoic

541–present Complex life, including vertebrates, began to dominate Earth's oceans in a process known as the Cambrian explosion. It forms Pangea and then dissolves into Laurasia and Gondwana. Gradually, life expanded onto land and all forms of plants, animals and fungi began to appear, including ants, insects and reptiles. Several mass extinctions have occurred, including birds, dinosaur descendants and tombs have emerged recently. Modern animals–including humans–develop in this last phase.

Geological time scale

See main articles: Geological time scale and Historical geology

Earth's history is ordered chronologically on a geological time scale table, which is divided into intervals according to stratigraphic analysis. The full timescale can be found in the main article. The first shows all time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this leaves little room for the most recent eon. Thus, the second timeline shows a broader view of the most recent eon. Likewise, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, and the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline.

Formation of the Solar System

Artistic representation of a protoplanetary disk around a solar protostar.

See main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

See also: Planetary differentiation

The standard model for the formation of the Solar System is the solar nebula hypothesis. In this model, the Solar System formed from an interstellar cloud–a swirling collection of dust and gas–called the solar nebula, composed of hydrogen and helium that was created shortly after the Big Bang event, 13.8 billion years ago. behind and elements beyond the weight ejected from the supernova. Around 4.5 billion years ago, the nebula began to contract, which may have been triggered by an adjacent supernova shock wave. The shock wave also caused the nebula to rotate. As the cloud spins faster, angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flatten the cloud into a protoplanetary disk that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The chaos caused by the impact and the effects of angular momentum from the massive debris created the means by which protoplanets several kilometers in size began to form, orbiting the center of the nebula.

The center of the nebula, which had little angular momentum, quickly collapsed; The pressure of the collapse heats it to allow nuclear fusion between hydrogen and helium to occur. As contractions increase, the star T Tauri forms and transforms into the Sun. Meanwhile, the nebula's external gravity causes matter to cool around a dense region of disturbance and dust particles, and the remains of the protoplanetary disk begin to separate into rings. Through a process known as rapid accretion, bits of dust and debris continually accumulate to form planets. The Earth formed in this way about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and this process was completed in 10–20 million years. The solar wind from the newly formed star T Tauri clears most of the material from the disk that is not incorporated into the larger object. The same process occurs in almost all newly formed stars in the universe that produce accretion disks, some of which produce extrasolar planets.

The new Earth continued to grow until its internal temperature warmed enough to melt the ironphile metal. With a density greater than that of silicate, the metal eventually sinks. This event, known as the iron catastrophe, resulted in the separation of the primitive mantle from the metallic core. This process occurred 10 million years after the Earth began to form and resulted in the Earth's multi-layered structure and the formation of a magnetic field. JA Jacobs was the first to show that the inner core–the solid inner core as distinct from the solid outer core–freezes and expands outward from the liquid outer core as the Earth's interior continues to cool (about 100°C per billion years). ). Extrapolations of these observations suggest that the nucleus formed 2–4 billion years ago. If this is true, it means that the core of Earth is not a primordial characteristic that originated during the formation of planets.

Hadean and Archean ةons

See main articles: Hadean and Archean

Artist's conception of Earth in the Hadean eon, when it was much hotter and inhospitable to all life forms.

The first formally recognized eon in Earth's history is called the Hadean, it began during the formation of the Earth and was followed by the Archean eon of 3.8 billion years ago. The oldest rocks found on Earth are just over 4 billion years old, and flakes of zircon crystals in the oldest rock found are about 4.4 billion years old, just after the formation of the Earth's crust and the Earth itself. According to the big impact hypothesis, the formation of the Moon occurred shortly after the formation of the Earth's crust, when the young Earth was hit by a protoplanet. The smallest, launching the Earth's mantle and crust into space and forming the Moon.

From the number of craters found on other celestial bodies, it is concluded that the period of intense meteorite impact, known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1–3.8 billion years ago at the end of the Hadean. Additionally, there are many volcanic eruptions caused by heat transfer as well as geothermal gradients. However, detretic zircon crystals are 4.4 billion years old and provide proof that these crystals had contact with water in a liquid state. This indicates that the Earth already had an ocean or sea at that time.

At the beginning of the Archean, Earth's temperature was quite cold. Modern life forms cannot live in the oxygen-poor Archean atmosphere and thin ozone layer. However, it is believed that ancient life began to develop in the early Archaean, with fossils dating back around 3.5 billion years. Some scientists have even speculated that life could have begun as early as the Early Hadean, about 4.4 billion years ago, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in hydrothermal vents beneath the Earth's surface.

Formation of the Moon

See main articles: Moon, Origin of the Moon and Big impact hypothesis

An artist's impression of the enormous collision that likely formed the Moon.

Earth's only natural satellite, the Moon, is larger in relation to its planet than any other satellite in the Solar System. During the Apollo program, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. Radiometric dating of these rocks shows that the Moon 4.53 ± 0.01 billion years ago, formed at least 30 million years after the Solar System. New evidence suggests that the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 billion years or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.

Theories for the formation of the Moon must explain its late formation, as well as the following facts. First, the Moon has a low density (3.3 times that of water, compared to 5.5 for Earth) and a small metallic core. Second, there is virtually no water or other volatile compounds on the Moon. Third, the Earth and the Moon have the same oxygen tracer isotope (relative abundance of oxygen isotopes). Of the theories proposed to explain these phenomena, one is widely accepted: the big impact hypothesis proposes that the Moon originated after a body the size of Mars hit the newly formed Earth.

This collision had a force 100 million times greater than that which caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. This force is enough to vaporize part of the Earth's outer layers and bring the two parts together in collision. Some of the mantle material is placed in orbit around the Earth. The big impact hypothesis postulates that the Moon is running out of metallic matter; this explains its abnormal composition. Matter launched into Earth's orbit can come together into one piece within a few weeks, under the influence of its own gravity; the longer the material will have a round shape.

First continents

Geological map of North America, color-coded by age. The reds and pinks indicate Archean rock.

Mantle convection, the process that drives plate tectonics, is the result of the flow of heat from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid tectonic plates at the oceanic ridge. These plates are destroyed by subduction into the mantle at subduction zones. During the early Archean (about 3.0 billion years ago) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around 1,600 °C (2,910 °F), thus convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to today's plate tectonics occurred, it would also have been faster. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, therefore plate tectonics were smaller.

The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, disappeared entirely from a combination of this rapid Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of intense late bombardment. However, it is believed to have a basaltic composition, like today's oceanic crust, because there was still little crustal differentiation. The first larger pieces of continental crust, the product of the differentiation of lighter elements during the partial melting of the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 billion years ago. What remains of these first small continents is called crلtons. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

The oldest rocks on Earth are found in the North American Creton of Canada. They are tonalite about 4.0 billion years old. They show traces of high-temperature metamorphism, but also sedimentary grains that were rounded by erosion during transport by water, showing that rivers and seas existed then. Crotons consist mainly of two alternating types of terrain. The former are called the greenstone belt, consisting of low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These "green rocks" are similar to the sediments found today in oceanic trenches, above subduction zones. For this reason, green rocks are sometimes seen as evidence of subduction during the Archean. The second type is a felsic complex of magmatic rocks. These rocks are mainly tonalite, trondhjemite or granodiorite, types of rocks similar in composition to granite (therefore these terranes are called TTG-terrains). The TTG complexes are seen as relics of the first continental crust, formed by partial melting in basalt.

Oceans and atmosphere

See also: Origin of water on Earth

Graph showing the estimated partial pressure range of atmospheric oxygen over geological time.

Earth is often described as having three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured by the solar nebula, was composed of light elements (atmophiles) from the solar nebula, mainly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have expelled this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted of these elements compared to cosmic abundances. After the impact that created the Moon, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later, more gases were released by volcanoes, completing a second atmosphere rich in greenhouse gases but poor in oxygen. Finally, the oxygen-rich third atmosphere emerged when bacteria began producing oxygen about 2.8 billion years ago.

In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was formed by the release of volatile materials from the Earth's interior. It is now considered likely that many of the volatile materials were delivered during accretion through a process known as "impact outgassing", in which the incoming bodies evaporate on impact. The ocean and atmosphere therefore began to form even as the Earth formed. The new atmosphere probably contained water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.

Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), Earth's distance from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and hydration of rocks by carbon vapor water would have taken too long. The water must have been supplied by meteorites from the outer asteroid belt and some large planetary embryos from beyond 2.5 AU. Comets may also have contributed. Although most comets today are in orbits further from the Sun than from Neptune, computer simulations show that they were originally much more common in the inner parts of the Solar System.

As the Earth cooled, clouds formed. Rain created the oceans. Recent evidence suggests that oceans may have started forming as early as 4.4 billion years ago. At the beginning of the Archean Eon, they already covered a large part of the Earth. This early formation has been difficult to explain because of a problem known as the faint young Sun paradox. It is known that stars become brighter as they age and at the time of their formation, the Sun would have emitted only 70% of its current power. Thus, the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years. Many models indicate that the Earth would have been covered in ice. A likely solution is that there was enough carbon dioxide and methane to produce greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and methane by the first microbes. Another greenhouse gas, ammonia, would have been ejected by volcanoes but quickly destroyed by ultraviolet radiation.

Origin of life

See main articles: Abiogenesis, First known life forms, Evolution and Evolutionary history of life

One of the reasons One reason for interest in the early atmosphere and ocean is that they form the conditions under which life first emerged. There are many models, but little consensus, about how life emerged from non-living chemicals; Chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism. The first step in the emergence of life may have been chemical reactions that produced many of the simplest, most organic compounds, including basic nuclei and amino acids, which are the building blocks of life. An experiment in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey showed that such molecules could form in an atmosphere of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen with the help of sparks to imitate the effect of lightning. Although the atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules. The computer simulation shows that the extraterrestrial organic molecule could have formed in the protoplanetary disk before the formation of the Earth.

Additional complexity could have been achieved from at least three possible starting points: self-replication, the ability of an organism to produce offspring that are similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself, and external cell membranes, which allow food in and products out but exclude undesirable substances.

First replication: RNA world

See main article: RNA world hypothesis

Even the simplest members of the three modern domains of life use DNA to record their "memories" and a complex set of RNA and protein molecules to "read" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance and self-replication.

The discovery that a type of RNA molecule called a ribozyme can catalyze both its own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis that earlier life forms were based entirely on RNA. They could have formed an RNA world in which there were individuals but no species, as mutation and horizontal gene transfer would mean that the descendants in each generation are very likely to have different genomes from those with which the parents started. RNA would later be replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have. Ribozymes remain the main components of ribosomes, the "protein factories" of modern cells.

Although short, self-replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories, doubts have been raised about whether natural, non-biological RNA synthesis is possible. The first ribozymes may have been formed by simpler nucleic acids, such as APN, ATN or AGN, which were later replaced by RNA. Other RNA pre-replicators have been postulated, including crystals and even quantum systems.

In 2003, it was proposed that precipitated porous metal sulfide would aid RNA synthesis at over 100 °C (212 °F) and at ocean floor pressures near hydrothermal vents. In this hypothesis, the proto-cells would be confined in the pores of the metallic substrate until the subsequent development of lipid membranes.

First metabolism: iron–sulfur world

See main article: Iron–sulfur world theory

The replicator in virtually all known life is deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is much more complex than the original replicator and its replication systems are highly elaborate.

Another long-standing hypothesis is that the first life was composed of protein molecules. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are easily synthesized under plausible prebiotic conditions, as are small peptides. (amino acid polymers) that produce good catalysts. A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that amino acids and peptides could be used in the presence of carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide with iron sulfate and nickel sulfide as catalysts. Most of the stages in its assembly required temperatures of around 100 °C (212 °F), moderate pressures, although one stage required 250 °C (482 °F) and a pressure equivalent to that found in 7 km (4.35 mi). ) of rock. Thus, self-sustaining protein synthesis could have occurred near hydrothermal vents.

One difficulty with the first scenario of metabolism is finding a way for organisms to evolve. Without the ability to replicate as individuals, aggregates of molecules would have "compositional genomes" (counts of molecular species in the aggregate) as the target of natural selection. However, a recent model shows that such a system is unable to evolve in response to natural selection.

First membranes: lipid world

It has been suggested that the double-walled "bubbles" of lipedia like those that form the outer membranes of cells may have been an essential first step. Experiments that simulated conditions on early Earth reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form liposomes and then reproduce. Although they are not intrinsically vehicles of information, like nucleic acids they are, they would be subject to natural selection for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids such as RNA may then have formed more easily inside the liposomes than they would have outside.

The clay theory

More information: Graham Cairns-Smith § Agile hypothesis

Cross section through a liposome.

Some clays, notably montmorillonite, have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self-replication of their crystalline pattern, they are subject to an analogue of natural selection (like the "species" of clay that grows more rapidly in a particular environment quickly becomes dominant) and can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules. Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active advocates.

Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acid into "bubbles" and that the bubbles could encapsulate clay-bound RNA. The bubbles can then grow, absorbing additional lipids and dividing. The formation of the first cells may have been aided by similar processes.

A similar hypothesis presents self-replicating iron-rich clays as progenitors of nucleotides, lipids and amino acids.

last common ancestor

See main article: Last common ancestor

The morphology of three types of microfossils from the Archean eon.

It is believed that, of this multiplicity of proto-cells, only one lineage has survived. Current phylogenetic evidence suggests that the last common ancestor (UAC) lived during the early Archean eon, perhaps 3.5 billion years ago. This UAC cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today. It was probably a prokaryote, having a cell membrane and probably ribosomes, but without an attached nucleus or membrane like mitochondria or chloroplasts. Like modern cells, it used DNA as its genetic code, RNA to transfer information and synthesize proteins and enzymes to catalyze reactions. Some scientists believe that, rather than a single organism being the last common ancestor, there were populations of organisms that exchanged genes through lateral gene transfer.

Proterozoic period

See main article: Proterozoic

The Proterozoic eon lasted from 2.5 billion to 542 million years ago. During this period, chromons developed into continents with the most recent sizes. The change in the oxygen-rich atmosphere is also a crucial development. Life evolved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and multicellular forms. In the Proterozoic, there were two severe ice ages called snowball earth. After the last snowball on Earth ended about 600 million years ago, the evolution of life on Earth occurred rapidly. About 580 years ago, the Ediacaran biota became the prelude to the Cambrian Explosion.

Oxygen revolution

Stromatolites are petrified on the shore of Lake Thetis, Western Australia. Archean stromatites are the first fossil traces of life on Earth.

A 3.15 billion banded iron formation Moodies Group, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. The red layers represent times when oxygen was available; gray layers were formed in anexic circumstances.

See main article: Large oxygenation event

See also: Ozonosphere

Ancient cells absorbed energy and food from the surrounding environment. They use fermentation (the breaking down of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy) and use the energy released to grow and reproduce. Fermentation can only occur in an anaerobic environment (without oxygen). The evolution of photosynthesis allowed cells to produce their own food. Most life on Earth's surface depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis. The most common form, oxygen photosynthesis, converts carbon dioxide, water and sunlight into food. In this process, the energy from sunlight is captured in energy-rich molecules, such as ATP, which provide the energy to create sugar. To provide electrons in the process, hydrogen is separated from water, so that oxygen is removed. Some organisms, such as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, perform oxygen-free photosynthesis that uses a hydrogen substitute in water as an electron donor; examples are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur and iron. These extremophile organisms live in extreme environments, such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.

A simpler anoxygenic form appeared about 3.8 billion years agos, shortly after the emergence of life. The beginning of oxygenic photosynthesis is more controversial; Evidence confirms its emergence around 2.4 billion years ago, but some researchers suggest a more distant past around 3.2 billion years ago. More distant futures "could increase global productivity by at least two or three times." Stromatolite fossils are among the oldest known oxygen-producing remains in the world.

Initially, the oxygen released into the air is bound with lime, iron and other minerals. Oxidized iron appears as a red layer in geological layers called stranded iron formations that formed in abundance during the Sideric period (between 2500 million years ago and 2300 million years ago). When most minerals are oxidized, eventually oxygen begins to accumulate in the atmosphere. Although each cell produces only a small amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a long period of time transformed Earth's atmosphere into what it is today. This atmosphere is Earth's third atmosphere.

Part of the oxygen is stimulated by ultraviolet radiation to form ozone, which accumulates in layers close to the upper atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation that enters the Earth's atmosphere. This allows cells to live on the surface of the oceans and then on land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation raining down on land and oceans would cause uncontrollable mutations in exposed cells.

Photosynthesis also plays a big role. Oxygen is toxic; Most life on Earth died because oxygen levels rose in an event known as the oxygen catastrophe. Tough creatures survive and thrive, and some of them develop the ability to use oxygen to increase metabolism and obtain more energy from the same food.

Snowball Earth

Snowball Earth illustration; land covered in snow from the poles to the equator.

See main article: Snowball Earth

Natural evolution caused the Sun to become brighter during the Archean and Proterozoic eras; The Sun's brightness increases by 6% every billion years. As a result, the Earth began to receive heat from the Sun during the Proterozoic period. However, the Earth does not necessarily heat up. In contrast, the geological record indicates that the Earth cooled dramatically during the early Proterozoic. Ice age remnants found in South Africa dated back 2.2 billion years, which at that time – based on evidence from paleomagnetism – the region should have been located near the equator. Therefore, the glaciation–known as the Makganyene glaciation–must have occurred globally. Some scientists support this theory and the Proterozoic ice age was so severe that the Earth was completely frozen from the poles to the equator: a hypothesis called Snowball Earth.

An ice age of about 2.3 billion years ago could have directly caused an increase in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, resulting in a decrease in methane (CH4) in the atmosphere. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, but in the presence of oxygen it reacts to form CO2, a less effective greenhouse gas. When free oxygen is available in the atmosphere, the concentration of methane also drops dramatically, enough to counteract the increase in heat from the Sun.

However, the term snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the cryogenic period. There were four periods, each lasting about 10 million years, between 750 and 580 million years ago, in which the Earth is thought to have been covered by ice beyond the highest mountains, and average temperatures were about −50 °C (−58.0 °F). The snowball may have been in part due to the location of the supercontinent Rodonia on the Equator. Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks and form carbonic acid, which is washed out to sea, extracting greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. When the continents are close to the poles, advancing ice covers the rocks, slowing the reduction of carbon dioxide, but in the Cryogenic weathering of Rodonia was able to continue unchecked until the ice advanced into the tropics. The process may have finally been reversed by the emission of carbon dioxide from volcanoes or by the destabilization of hydrates from methane gas. According to the alternative Slushball Earth theory, even at the height of the ice ages there was still open water at Ecuador.

Emergence of eukaryotes

Chloroplasts in the cells of a moss

More information: Eukaryota § Origin and evolution

Modern taxonomy classifies life into three domains. The time of its origin is uncertain. The Bacteria domain probably separated first from the other life forms (sometimes called Neomura), but this assumption is controversial. Soon after he said o, by 2 billion, Neomura split into Archaea and Eukarya. Eukaryotic cells (Eukarya) are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea), and the origin of this complexity is only now becoming known. The oldest fossils possessing typical fungal characteristics date from the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2.4 years ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.

Around this time, the first protomitochondria were formed. A bacterial cell related to modern-day Rickettsia, which evolved to metabolize oxygen, entered a larger prokaryotic cell, which did not have this ability. Perhaps the large cell tried to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses). The smaller cell may have tried to parasitize the larger one. In any case, the smaller cell survived inside the larger cell. Using oxygen, he metabolized the waste products of the larger cells and derived more energy. Some of this excess energy was returned to the host. The smaller cell replicated inside the larger one. Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells within it. Over time, the host cell acquired some genes from the smaller cells, and the two types became dependent on each other: the larger cell could not survive without the energy produced by the smaller ones, and these, in turn, could not survive without to raw materials supplied by the larger cell. The entire cell is now considered a single organism, and the smaller cells are classified as organelles called mitochondria.

A similar event occurred with photosynthetic cyanobacteria[118] entering large heterotrophic cells and becoming chloroplasts. Probably as a result of these changes, a line of cells capable of photosynthesis separated from other eukaryotes more than 1 billion years ago. There were probably several of these inclusion events. In addition to the well-established endosymbiotic theory of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to peroxisomes, spirochetes led to cilia and flagella, and that perhaps a DNA virus led to the cell nucleus, although none of these are widely accepted.

Archaeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes continued to diversify and become more complex and better adapted to their environments. Each domain repeatedly divides into several lineages, although little is known about the history of archaea and bacteria. Around 1.1 billion, the supercontinent Rodonia was forming. Lineages of plants, animals, and fungi divided, although they still existed as solitary cells. Some of them lived in colonies and gradually, a division of labor began to occur; for example, cells in the periphery may have begun to take on different roles than those in the interior. Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, about 1 billion years ago, the first multicellular plants appeared, probably green algae. Possibly around 900 million: 488 true multicellularity also evolved in animals.

At first, it probably looked like today's sponges, which have totipotent cells that allow a damaged organism to repair itself. ہ As the division of labor was completed in all lines of multicellular organisms, cells became more specialized and more dependent on each other; isolated cells would die.

Supercontinents in the Proterozoic

The reconstruction of Panthia (550 million years).

See main article: Supercontinent

Reconstructions of tectonic plate movement over the last 250 million years (Cenozoic and Mesozoic eras) can be done reliably using adjustments for continental margins, ocean floor magnetic anomalies, and paleomagnetic poles. No oceanic crust dates older than this, so earlier reconstructions are more difficult. The paleomagnetic poles are complemented by geological evidence, such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates and previous distributions of flora and fauna. The further back in time, the more scarce and difficult to interpret the data become and the more uncertain the reconstructions are.

Throughout Earth's history, there have been times when continents collided and formed a supercontinent, which later split into new continents. Around 1000 to 830 million years ago, most of the continental landmass was united into the supercontinent Rodonia. Rhodenia may have been preceded by Middle and Early Proterozoic continents called Nuna and Colombia.

After the breakup of Rodonia around 800 million years ago, the continents may have formed another short-lived supercontinent around 550 million years ago. The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as like Pantia or Vendia. The evidence for this is a phase of continental collision known as the Pan-African orogeny, which joined the continental masses of present-day Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia. The existence of Pannotia depends on the timing of the separation between Gondwana (which included most of the landmass now in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent) and Laurentia (roughly equivalent to present-day North America). It is at least certain that by the end of the Proterozoic eon, most of the continental mass was united in one position around the south pole.

Late Proterozoic climate and life

580 million years ago, fossil of Spriggina flooundensi, an animal from the Ediacaran period. These life forms may have been ancestors of the many new forms that originated in the Cambrian Explosion.

The end of the Proterozoic saw at least two snowball Earths, so severe that the surface of the oceans may have been completely frozen. This happened around 716.5 and 635 million years ago, in the Cryogenic period. The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation on Snowball Earth and more difficult to explain than the early Proterozoic. Most paleoclimatologists believe that cold episodes are linked to the formation of the supercontinent Rodonia. As Rhodenia was centered on the Equator, rates of chemical weathering increased and carbon dioxide (CO2) was removed from the atmosphere. Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates have cooled globally. Likewise, during the Snowball Earths most of the continental surface was covered with permafrost, which slowed chemical weathering again, leading to the end of glaciations. An alternative hypothesis is that enough carbon dioxide escaped through the volcanic release of gases that the resulting greenhouse effect raised global temperatures. Increased volcanic activity resulted from the breakup of Rodinia at about the same time.

The Cryogenic period was followed by the Ediacaran period, which was characterized by a rapid development of new multicellular life forms. It's not clear whether there is a connection between the end of severe ice ages and the increase in the diversity of life, but it doesn't seem like a coincidence. The new life forms, called Ediacaran biota, were larger and more diverse than ever before. Although the taxonomy of most Ediacaran life forms is unclear, some were ancestral to modern life groups. Important developments were the origin of muscle and neural cells. None of the Ediacaran fossils had skeletal-hard body parts. These first appear after the boundary between the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eons or the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods.

ةon Phanerozoic

The Phanerozoic is the current eon on Earth, which began approximately 542 million years ago. It consists of three eras: the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, and is the time when multicellular life greatly diversified in almost all organisms known today.

The Paleozoic ("old life") era was the first and longest era of the Phanerozoic eon, lasting from 542 to 251 million years. During the Paleozoic, many modern groups of life emerged. Life colonized the earth, first plants, then animals. Two major extinctions occurred. The continents formed in the breakup of Panthia and Rodonia at the end of the Proterozoic slowly moved together again, forming the supercontinent Pangaea at the end of the Paleozoic.

The Mesozoic era ("middle life") lasted from 251 million to 66 million years. It is subdivided into the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The era began with the Permian-Triassic extinction event, the most severe extinction event in the fossil record; 95% of species on Earth have died out. It ended with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs.

The Cenozoic era ("new life") began at 66 million, and is subdivided into the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary periods. These three periods are divided into seven subdivisions, with the Paleogene composed of Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene, the Neogene divided into Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternary, composed of Pleistocene and Holocene. Mammals, birds, amphibians, crocodilians, turtles, and lepidosaurs survived the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event that killed off non-avian dinosaurs and many other life forms, and this is the era in which they diversified into their modern forms.

Tectonics, paleogeography and climate

Pangea is a supercontinent of about 300 to 180 million others. The contours of modern continents and other landmasses are indicated on this map.

At the end of the Proterozoic, the supercontinent Pantia split into the smaller continents Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and Gondwana. During periods when continents break apart, more oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity. Because young volcanic crust is relatively hotter and less dense than older oceanic crust, the ocean floor rises during these periods. This causes the sea level to rise. Therefore, in the first half of the Paleozoic, large areas of the continents were below sea level.

Early Paleozoic climates were warmer than today, but the end of the Ordovician saw a short ice age during which glaciers covered the south pole, where the huge continent Gondwana was situated. Traces of glaciation from this period are found only in ancient Gondwana. During the Late Ordovician Ice Age, some mass extinctions occurred, in which many brachiopods, trilobites, bryozoans and corals disappeared. These marine species probably could not cope with decreasing seawater temperatures.

The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 million years ago, during the Caledonian Orogeny, to form Lauresia (also known as Euramérica). Traces of the mountain belt that this collision caused can be found in Scandinavia, Scotland, and the Northern Appalachians. In the Devonian period (416-359 million) Gondwana and Siberia began to move towards Laurasia. The collision of Siberia with Laurasia caused the Uralian Orogeny, the collision of Gondwana with Laurasia is called the Variscan or Hercenic Orogeny in Europe or the Alleghenian Orogeny in North America. The last phase occurred during the Carboniferous period (359–299 million) and the formation of the last supercontinent, Pangea.

Around 180 million years ago, Pangea split into Laurasia and Gondwana.

Cambrian Explosion

Trilobites first appeared during the Cambrian period and were among the most widespread and diverse groups of Paleozoic organisms.

See main article: Cambrian Explosion

The rate of evolution of life recorded by fossils accelerated in the Cambrian period (542-488 million years). The sudden emergence of many new species, phyla and forms in this period is called the Cambrian Explosion. Biological development in the Cambrian Explosion was unprecedented before or since. Considering that Ediacaran life forms still appear primitive and not easy to place in any modern group, by the end of the Cambrian most of the modern phyla were already present. The development of hard body parts such as shells, skeletons or exoskeletons in animals such as molluscs, echinoderms, crinoids and arthropods (a well-known group of lower Paleozoic arthropods are the trilobites) made the preservation and fossilization of such life forms easier than those of their Proterozoic ancestors. For this reason, much more is known about life in and after the Cambrian than about earlier periods. Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex, but they are apparently very different from modern life; examples are Anomalocaris and Haikouichthys. More recently, however, these seem to have found a place in modern classification.

During the Cambrian, the first vertebrate animals appeared, including the first fish. One creature that could have been the ancestor of fish, or was probably closely related to it, was Pikaia. It had a primitive notochord, a structure that could have developed into a spinal column later. The first jawed fish (Gnathostomata) appeared during the next geological period, the Ordovician. The colonization of new niches in massive bodies. In this way, fish with increasing sizes evolved during the early Paleozoic, such as the titanic placoderm Dunkleosteus, which could grow 7 meters (23 feet) in length.

The diversity of life forms has not increased much because of a series of mass extinctions that define widespread biostratigraphic units called biomers. After the extinction of each pulse, continental shelf regions were repopulated by similar life forms that may have evolved slowly elsewhere. At the end of the Cambrian, trilobites reached their greatest diversity and dominated almost all fossil assemblages.

Land colonization

Artistic conception of the Devonian flora.

The accumulation of oxygen from photosynthesis, in the formation of an ozone layer that absorbed much of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, meant that single-celled organisms that reached land were less likely to die, and prokaryotes began to multiply and become more well adapted to survive out of water. Prokaryotic lineages likely colonized the earth as early as 2.6 billion years ago, even before the origin of eukaryotes. For a long time, the earth remained without multicellular organisms. The supercontinent Pantia was formed around 600 million years ago and broke up 50 million years later. Fish, the first vertebrates, evolved in the oceans around 530 million years ago. A major extinction event occurred near the end of the Cambrian period, which ended 488 million years ago.

Several hundred million years ago, plants (probably similar to algae) and fungi began to grow on the water's banks, and then out of it. The oldest fossils of fungi and land plants date back to 480-460 million years ago, although molecular evidence suggests that fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 million years ago and plants as early as 700 million years ago. Initially remaining close to the water's edge, mutations and variations, in greater colonization of this new environment. The time when the first animals left the oceans is not precisely known: the earliest clear evidence is of arthropods on land around 450 million years ago, perhaps thriving and adapting better due to the vast food source provided by land plants . There is also unconfirmed evidence that arthropods may have appeared on land around 530 million years ago.

Evolution of tetrapods

Tiktaalik, a fish with limb-like fins and a predecessor of tetrapods. Reconstruction of fossils around 375 million years old.

More information: Tetropods § Evolution

At the end of the Ordovician period, 443 million years ago, additional extinction events occurred, perhaps due to a simultaneous ice age. Around 380 to 375 million years ago, the first tetrapods evolved from fish. Fins evolved to become limbs that early tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe. This would let them live in oxygen-poor waters or chase small prey in shallow waters. They may have subsequently ventured ashore for brief periods. Eventually, some of them adapted so well to life on land that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in water and returned to lay their eggs. This was the origin of amphibians. Around 365 million years ago, another period of extinction occurred, perhaps as a result of global cooling. Plants developed seeds, which drastically accelerated their spread on Earth at this time (approximately 360 million years).

About 20 million years later (340 million years), the amniotic egg evolved, which could be placed on land, giving a survival advantage to tetrapod embryos. This arises from the divergence of amniotes from amphibians. Another 30 million years (310 million) saw the divergence of synapsoids (including mammals) from sauropsoids (including birds and reptiles). Other groups of organisms continued to evolve and lines diverged–into fish, insects, bacteria, and so on–but less is known about the details.

Dinosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates throughout most of the Mesozoic.

Dinosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates throughout most of the Mesozoic. After another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 million years), around 230 million years ago, dinosaurs separated from their reptilian ancestors. The Triassic-Jurassic extinction event at 200 million years spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among vertebrates. Although some mammal lineages began to separate during this period, extant mammals were probably small shrew-like animals.

The boundary between avian and non-avian dinosaurs is unclear, but Archeopteryx, traditionally considered one of the first birds, lived around 150 million years ago.

The earliest evidence of angiosperms developing flowers is during the Cretaceous period, about 20 million years later (132 million years ago).

Extinctions

The first of the five great mass extinctions was the Ordovician-Silurian extinction. Its possible cause was the intense glaciation of Gondwana, which ended up resulting in a snowball-shaped land. 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.

The second mass extinction was the Late Devonian extinction, probably caused by the evolution of trees, which could have led to the depletion of greenhouse gases (such as CO2) or water eutrophication. 70% of all species have become extinct.

The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or Great Dying, event possibly caused by some combination of the Siberian Trapps volcanic event, an asteroid impact, methane hydrate gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a large anexic event. Either the proposed Wilkes Earth crater in Antarctica or the Bedout structure on the northwest coast of Australia could indicate an impact connection to the Permian-Triassic extinction. But it remains uncertain whether these or other proposed Permian-Triassic boundary craters are real impact craters or even contemporary with the Permian-Triassic extinction event. It's This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all families and 83% of all genera dead.

The fourth mass extinction was the Trissic-Jurassic extinction event in which almost all synapsoids and archosaurs became extinct, likely due to new competition from dinosaurs.

The fifth and most recent mass extinction was the K-T extinction. In 66 million years, a 10-kilometer (6.2-mile) asteroid struck Earth near the Yucatan Peninsula–somewhere on the southwestern tip of Laurasia–where the Chicxulub crater is today. This ejected large amounts of particles and vapor into the air that blocked sunlight, inhibiting photosynthesis. 75% of all life, including non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct, marking the end of the Cretaceous period and the Mesozoic era.

Diversification of mammals

More information: Evolutionary history of mammals

The first true mammals evolved in the shadows of the dinosaurs and other large archosaurs that populated the world at the end of the Triassic. The first mammals were too small and probably nocturnal to escape predation. The diversification of mammals actually began only after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event. At the beginning of the Paleocene, Earth recovered from extinction and mammal diversity increased. Creatures like Ambulocetus went to the oceans to eventually evolve into whales, while some creatures, like primates, went to trees. This all changed during the mid-to-late Eocene, when the circum-Antarctic current formed between Antarctica and Australia, which disrupted climate patterns on a global scale. Grassless savanna began to dominate much of the landscape, and mammals like Andrewsarchus became the largest known land mammal predator of all time, and early whales like Basilosaurus took over the seas.

The evolution of grass brought a remarkable change to Earth's landscape, and the new open spaces created led to mammals getting bigger and bigger. Grass began to expand in the Miocene, and it is in the Miocene that many modern mammals first appeared. Giant ungulates like Paraceratherium and Deinotherium evolved to rule the grasslands. The evolution of grass also brought primates under the trees and began human evolution. The first felines also evolved at this time. The Tethys Sea was closed by the collision of Africa and Europe. The formation of Panama was perhaps the most important geological event to occur in the last 60 million years. The Atlantic and Pacific currents became isolated, which led to the formation of the Gulf Stream, which made Europe warmer. The land bridge allowed isolated creatures from South America to migrate to North America and vice versa. Several species migrated south, leading to the presence in South America of llamas, spectacled bears, jupars, and jaguars.

Three million years ago saw the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch, which featured dramatic climate changes due to ice ages. Ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion. The mega-fauna that dominated fed on grasslands that, by this point, had dominated much of the subtropical world. The large amounts of water trapped in ice have allowed several bodies of water to shrink and sometimes disappear, such as the North Sea and the Bering Strait. Many believe that a great migration occurred throughout Berيngia, which is why today there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America) and Native Americans. The end of the last ice age coincided with the expansion of man, along with a massive die-off of ice age megafauna. This extinction is nicknamed the "Sixth Extinction".

Human evolution

See also: Chronology of life and Natural chronology

See main article: Human evolution

A small African monkey that lived around 6 million years ago was the last animal whose descendants would include modern humans and their closest relatives, chimpanzees. Only two branches of his family tree have surviving descendants. Soon after the split, for reasons that are not yet clear, monkeys on one branch developed the ability to walk upright. Brain size increased rapidly, and within 2 million years, the first animals classified in the genus Homo had Of course, the line between different species or even genera is somewhat arbitrary, as organisms continually change over generations. Around the same time, the other branch split into the ancestors of the common chimpanzee and the ancestors of the bonobo as evolution continued simultaneously across all life forms. The ability to control fire probably began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago. three, but perhaps as early as 1.5 million years.[119]:67 The use and discovery of controlled fire may even predate Homo erectus. Fire was possibly used by the Lower Paleolithic (Olduvaian) hominid Homo habilis or strong australopithecines such as Paranthropus.

A reconstruction of human history based on fossil data.

It is more difficult to establish the origin of the language; It is not clear whether Homo erectus could speak or whether this ability did not begin until Homo sapiens. ہ As brain size increased, babies were born earlier, before their heads became too big to fit through the pelvis. As a result, they exhibited more plasticity, and therefore had a greater capacity to learn and required a longer period of dependence. Social skills have become more complex, language has become more sophisticated, and tools have become more elaborate. This contributed to greater cooperation and intellectual development. Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are believed to have originated about 200,000 years ago or earlier in Africa; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.

The first humans to show signs of spirituality are the Neanderthals (generally classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often without any sign of food or tools. However, evidence of more sophisticated beliefs, such as the first Cro-Magnon cave paintings (probably with magical or religious significance) did not appear until 32,000 years ago.[179] Cro-Magnons also left behind stone figurines, such as the Venus of Willendorf, probably also signifying religious belief. By 11,000 years ago, Homo sapiens had reached the southern tip of South America, the last of the uninhabited continents (except for Antarctica, which remained unknown until 1820 AD). Tool use and communication continued to improve and interpersonal relationships became more complex.

Human history

Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci summarizes the advances in art and science seen during the Renaissance.

See main articles: History of the world and Cradle of civilization

More information: History of Africa, History of America, History of Antarctica and History of Eurasia

For more than 90% of its history, Homo sapiens lived in small bands as nomadic hunter-gatherers. As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted, according to a theory proposed by Richard Dawkins, in a new replicator: the meme. Ideas could be exchanged quickly and passed from generation to generation. Cultural evolution quickly overtook biological evolution and history proper began. Between 8,500 and 7,000 BC, humans in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East began the systematic breeding of plants and animals: agriculture. This spread to neighboring regions and developed independently elsewhere, until most Homo sapiens lived sedentary lives in permanent settlements as farmers. Not all societies have abandoned nomadism, especially those in isolated areas of the globe poor in domesticable plant species, such as Australia. However, among civilizations that adopted agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by agriculture allowed the population to expand.

Agriculture had a huge impact; humans began to affect the environment like never before. Surplus food allowed the emergence of a priestly or ruling class, followed by an increasing division of labor. This led to Earth's first civilization in Sumer in the Middle East between 4000 and 3000 B.C. Additional civilizations quickly arose in ancient Egypt, the Indus River Valley, and China. The invention of writing enabled the emergence of complex societies: record keeping and libraries served as a repository of knowledge and increased the cultural transmission of information. Humans no longer had to spend all their time working to survive, allowing for the first specialized occupations (e.g., artisans, merchants, priests, etc.). Curiosity and education drove the search for knowledge and wisdom, and several disciplines, including science (in a primitive form), emerged. This, in turn, led to the emergence of increasingly larger and more complex civilizations, such as the first empires, which sometimes traded with each other or fought over territory and resources.

By 500 B.C., there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, sometimes expanding, sometimes declining. In 221 BC, China became a single government that would grow to spread its culture throughout East Asia, and became the most populous nation in the world. During this period, famous Hindu texts known as Vedas emerged in the Indus Valley civilization. This civilization developed into war, arts, science, mathematics and architecture. The foundations of Western civilization were largely shaped in Ancient Greece, with the world's first democratic government and major advances in philosophy and science. Ancient Rome in law, government and engineering. The Roman Empire was Christianized by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century and declined in the late 5th century. Beginning with the 7th century, Christianization of Europe began. In 610, Islam was founded and quickly became the dominant religion in Western Asia. The House of Wisdom was established in Abyssid-era Baghdad, Iraq. It is considered an important intellectual center during the Islamic Golden Age, where Muslim scholars in Baghdad and Cairo flourished from the 9th to 13th centuries until the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. In 1054 A.D., the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodoxy has led to prominent cultural differences between Western and Eastern Europe.

In the 14th century, the Renaissance began in Italy with advances in religion, art and science. At that time, the Christian Church as a political entity lost much of its power. In 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, initiating great changes in the new world. European civilization began to change from 1500 onwards, leading to the scientific and industrial revolutions. This continent began to exercise political and cultural dominance over human societies around the world, at a time known as the Colonial Era (see also Age of Discoveries). In the 18th century, a cultural movement known as the Enlightenment further shaped the mentality of Europe and contributed to its secularization. From 1914 to 1918 and from 1939 to 1945, nations around the world were involved in world wars. Established after the First World War, the League of Nations was a first step in establishing international institutions to resolve disputes peacefully. After failing to prevent World War II, humanity's bloodiest conflict, it was replaced by the United Nations. After the war, many new states were formed, declaring or receiving independence in a period of decolonization. The democratic capitalist United States and the socialist Soviet Union became the world's dominant superpowers for a time and maintained an often violent ideological rivalry known as the Cold War until its dissolution. In 1992, several European nations joined the European Union. As transportation and communication improved, the economies and political affairs of nations around the world became increasingly interconnected. This globalization often produces conflict and cooperation.

Recent events

Astronaut Bruce McCandless outside the space shuttle Challenger in 1984

See main article: Contemporary Age

See also: Modernity and Future

Change has continued at a rapid pace from the mid-1940s to today. Technological developments include nuclear weapons, computers, genetic engineering and nanotechnology. Economic globalization, driven by advances in communications and transportation technology, has influenced everyday life in many parts of the world. Cultural and institutional forms, such as democracy, capitalism and ecologism, have greater influence. Major concerns and problems such as disease, war, poverty, violent radicalism, and recently, man-made climate change have increased with the increase in the world's population.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite into orbit and soon after, Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space. Neil Armstrong, an American, was the first to set foot on another astronomical object, the Moon. Unmanned probes have been sent to every known planet in the Solar System, with some (such as the two Voyager spacecraft) having left the Solar System. Five space agencies, representing more than fifteen countries, worked together to build the International Space Station. Aboard it, there has been a continuous human presence in space since 2000. The World Wide Web became part of everyday life in the 1990s and has since become an indispensable source of information in the developed world.

Chronology of the Universe

This chronology of the Universe or Big Bang chronology describes the history of the Universe and its future according to Big Bang cosmology. The early stages of the universe's existence are estimated at 13.8 billion years ago, with an uncertainty of about 21 million years at the 68% confidence level.

Chronology in five stages

For the purposes of this summary, it is convenient to divide the chronology of the universe since its origination into five parts. It is generally considered o meaningless or uncertain whether time existed before this chronology:

The very primitive Universe

The first picosecond (10-12) of cosmic time. Includes the Planck Era, during which currently understood laws of physics may not apply; the emergence in stages of the four known fundamental interactions or forces - the first gravitation and later, the electromagnetic interactions, weak and strong; and the expansion of space itself and the supercooling of the still immensely hot universe due to cosmic inflation, which is believed to have been triggered by the separation of the strong and electroweak interaction.

Small ripples in the universe at this stage are believed to be the basis of large-scale structures that formed much later. Different stages of the early universe are understood to different extents. The previous parts are beyond the scope of practical experiments in particle physics, but can be explored by other means.

The early Universe

Lasting about 370 thousand years. Initially, various types of subatomic particles are formed in stages. These particles include almost equal amounts of matter and antimatter; therefore, most annihilate quickly, leaving a small excess of matter in the universe.

In about a second, the neutrinos dissociate; these neutrinos from the cosmic neutrino background (CيB). If primordial black holes exist, they too are formed approximately one second of cosmic time. Composition of subatomic particles emerge—including protons and neutrons—form over 2 minutes, conditions are suitable for nucleosynthesis: about 25% of the protons and all the neutrons fuse into heavier elements, initially deuterium, which quickly quickly fuses into helium-4.

In 20 minutes, the universe is no longer hot enough for nuclear fusion, but it is too hot for neutral atoms to exist or photons to travel far. Therefore, it is an opaque plasma. In about 47 thousand years, as the universe cools, its behavior begins to be dominated by matter rather than radiation. In about 100 thousand years, helium hydride is the first molecule. (Much later, hydrogen and helium hydride react to form molecular hydrogen, the fuel needed for the first stars.)

In about 370,000 years, the universe finally becomes cold enough to form neutral atoms ("recombination") and as a result, it also becomes transparent for the first time. The newly formed atoms–mainly hydrogen and helium with traces of lithium–rapidly reach their lowest energy state (ground state) by releasing photons ("photon decoupling"), and these photons can still be detected today as the cosmic background of microwave (CMB). Currently, it is the oldest observation we have of the Universe.

Dark Ages and emergence of large-scale structure

From 370 thousand years to around 1 billion years. After recombination and dissociation, the universe was transparent, but the hydrogen clouds only collapsed very slowly to form stars and galaxies, so there were no new sources of light. The only photons (electromagnetic radiation, or "light") in the universe were those released during dissociation (today visible as the cosmic microwave background) and emission of radio 21 cm occasionally emitted by hydrogen atoms. The dissociated photons would have filled the universe with a bright pale orange glow at first, gradually changing to a non-visible red after about 3 million years, leaving it without visible light. This period is known as the cosmic Dark Ages.

Between 10 and 17 million years ago, the average temperature of the universe was suitable for liquid water at 273 K (−0.150 °C)–373 K (99.9 °C) and there is speculation whether rocky planets or even life could have appeared briefly, since statistically a small part of the universe could have different conditions from the others as a result of a very unlikely statistical fluctuation and have received heat from the universe as a whole.

At some point, about 200 to 500 million years, the first generations of stars and galaxies form (exact times are still being researched) and large structures gradually emerge, attracted by the foam-like filament of dark matter, filaments that already began to unite across the universe. The first generations of stars have not yet been observed astronomically. They may have been huge (100-300 solar masses) and non-metallic, with very short lifespans compared to most stars we see today; They finish burning their hydrogen fuel and pair and instability supernovae's highly energetic explosion after mere millions of years. Other theories suggest they may have included small stars, some perhaps still heating today. In both cases, these first generations of supernovae created most of the everyday elements we see around us to this day and seeded the universe with them.

Clusters of galaxies and superclusters emerge over time. At some point, high-energy photons from older stars, dwarf galaxies, and perhaps quasars lead to a period of reionization that begins gradually over 250 to 500 million years, is completed in about 700 to 900 million years, and decreases in about 1 billion years ago (exact times still being researched). The universe gradually transitioned into the universe we see around us today, and the Dark Ages only came to an end in about 1 billion years.

The Universe as it appears today

Since 1 billion years ago and for about 12.8 billion years, the universe has looked the same as it does today. It will continue to look very similar for many billions of years into the future. The thin disk of our galaxy began to form about 5 billion years ago (8.8 Gya), and the Solar System formed about 9.2 billion years ago (4.6 Gya), with the first traces of life on Earth. Earth emerging in about 10.3 billion years (3.5 Gya).

About 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, the slow expansion of space gradually begins to accelerate under the influence of dark energy, which may be a scalar field throughout the universe. The current universe is well understood, but beyond about 100 billion years of cosmic time (about 86 billion years in the future), uncertainties in current knowledge mean we are less sure which path our universe will take.

The distant future and the final destination

At some point the Estelfera Era will end when stars are no longer being born, and the expansion of the universe will mean that the observable universe becomes limited to local galaxies. There are several scenarios for the distant future and the final destiny of the universe. A more accurate knowledge of our current universe will allow them to be better understood.

Play content

Hubble Space Telescope—Ultra Deep Field galaxies out of Legacy Field zoom (video 00:50; May 2, 2019)

table index

More information: Chronology of the formation of the universe, Chronology of Earth's history, Geological time scale, Chronology of evolution and Timeline of the distant future

Note: The radiation temperature in the table below refers to the cosmic background radiation and is given by 2.725•(1+z), where z is the redshift.

big Bang

See main articles: Big Bang, Cosmogony and Why does anything exist?

Cosmic history

The standard model of cosmology is based on a space-time model called the Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker (FLRW) metric. A metric provides a measure of distance between objects, and the FLRW metric is the exact solution of the Einstein field equations (EFE) if some key properties of space, such as homogeneity and isotropy, are considered true. The FLRW metric closely matches other evidence showing that the universe has expanded since the Big Bang.

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The very primitive Universe

All understanding of the beginning of the Universe (Cosmogony) is speculative. No currently existing particle accelerator has enough energy to prove with certainty what may have occurred during this period. The scenarios are completely different. Some of the existing theories are Hartle-Hawking, string theory, particle expansion, gas string cosmology, and Wielkiej Kraksy theory (Ekpyrotic Universe). Some of these theories are associated, others are not.

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Planck's Era

Up to 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang

See main article: Planck era

If supersymmetry is correct, then at this time the four fundamental forces – electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force and gravity – would all have the same strength, so they were possibly unified into a single fundamental force. Our knowledge about this era is small, although different theories make different predictions. Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts a gravitational singularity before this time, but under these conditions the theory is expected to suffer a breakdown of its laws due to quantum effects. Physicists hope that proposed theories of quantum gravity, such as string theory and loop quantum gravity, will eventually lead to a better understanding of this era.

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A Era of Grand Unification

Between 10-43 seconds and 10-36 seconds after the Big Bang.

See main article: Era of Grand Unification

With the expansion of the universe and cooling of the Planck epoch, gravity began to separate from fundamental gauge interactions: electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Physics on this scale can be described by a grand unifying theory in which the gauge theory of the standard model is embedded in a larger group, which is divided to produce the forces observed in nature. Eventually, the grand unification was broken, separating the strong nuclear force from the weak electroforce. This, then, must have produced the magnetic monopoles.

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The Electroweak Era

Between 10-36 seconds and 10-32 seconds after the Big Bang.

See main article: Electroweak Era

The temperature of the universe is high enough to fuse electromagnetism and the weak interaction into a single electroweak interaction. Particle interactions are energetic enough to create a large number of exotic particles, including W and Z bosons and Higgss bosons.

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The Inflationary Era and the rapid expansion of space

Between 10-32 seconds and (?) seconds after the Big Bang.

See main article: Era of Inflation

The temperature, and therefore the time, at which cosmic inflation occurs is not known with certainty. During inflation, the universe is flattened and the universe enters a phase of rapid homogeneous and isotropic expansion in which the seeds of structure formation are set in the form of a primordial spectrum of scale-invariant quasi-fluctuations. Some energy from the photons becomes virtual quarks and heperons, but these particles quickly decay. One scenario suggests that, before cosmic inflation, the universe was cold and empty, and the immense heat and energy associated with the early phases of the Big Bang was created through the phase change associated with the end of inflation. This rapid increase in the expansion of the linear dimensions of the early universe by a factor of at least 1026 (and possibly a much larger factor), and thus its volume increased by a factor of at least 1078.

The expansion is thought to have been triggered by the phase transition that marked the end of the preceding era of grand unification at approximately 10−36 seconds after the Big Bang. One of the theoretical products of this phase transition was a scalar field called the enflaton field. As this field settled into its lowest energy state in the entire universe, a repulsive force was generated that led to a rapid expansion of space. This expansion explains several properties of the current universe that are difficult to explain without such an inflationary time.

It is not known exactly when the inflationary epoch ended, but it is believed to have been between 10−33 and 10−32 seconds after the Big Bang. The rapid expansion of space has meant that the elementary particles that remained from the grand unification era were now distributed very thinly throughout the universe. However, the enormous energetic potential of the inflation field was released at the end of the inflationary epoch, repopulating the universe with a dense, hot mixture of quarks, anti-quarks and glons as it entered the electroweak era.

On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists from the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of B-mode gravitational wave inflationaries in the power spectrum, providing the first clear experimental evidence for cosmological inflation and the Big Bang. However, on June 19, 2014, reduced confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation discoveries was reported.

Electroweak symmetry breaking

See main article: Higgs mechanism

During reheating, the exponential expansion that occurred during inflation ceases and the potential energy of the inflaton field decays to a hot, relativistic particle plasma. If grand unification is a feature of our universe, then cosmic inflation must occur during or after grand unification symmetry is broken, otherwise magnetic monopoles would be seen in the visible universe. At this point, the universe is dominated by radiation; quarks, electrons and form neutrinos.

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Speculated supersymmetry breaking

See main article: Supersymmetry breaking

If supersymmetry is a property of our universe, then it must be broken at an energy as low as 1 TeV, the electroweak symmetry scale. The masses of the particles and their S-particles, will then stop being equal, which could explain why there are no known particle superpartners that have ever been observed.

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The early Universe

After cosmic inflation ends, the universe is filled with a quark-gloon plasma. From this point on the physics of the early Universe is better understood, and less speculated.

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The Age of Quark

Between 10-12 seconds and 10-6 seconds after the Big Bang

See main article: Quark Era

In electroweak force symmetry, at the end of the electroweak era, all particles are believed to acquire a mass through the Higgs mechanism, in which the Higgs acquires an expected value in a vacuum. The fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, strong interaction and weak interaction have already taken their present forms, but the temperature of the universe is still too high to allow quarks to bind into hydrons.

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Baryogenesis

See main article: Baryogenesis

There is no knowledge in physics that can explain the fact that there are so many more baryons in the universe than antibaryons. For this to be explained, the Sakharov conditions must be fulfilled at some point after inflation. There is evidence that this is possible in known physics and from studying grand unified theories, but the full picture is not known.

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The Age of Hadron

Between 10-6 seconds and 1 second after the Big Bang

See main article: Era Hلdron

The quark-gloon plasma that makes up the universe cools until hydrons, including baryons, like protons and neutrons, can form. About 1 second after the Big Bang, neutrinos begin to decouple from traveling freely through space. This cosmic background of neutrinos, while unlikely to ever be observed in detail, is analogous to the cosmic background radiation that was emitted much later.

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Neutrino decoupling and cosmic neutrino background (CيB)

About 1 second after the Big Bang

See main articles: Neutrino decoupling and neutrino cosmic background

Approximately 1 second after the Big Bang, neutrinos uncouple and begin to travel freely through space. Because neutrinos rarely interact with matter, these neutrinos still exist today, in a manner analogous to the much later cosmic background radiation emitted during recombination, about 370,000 years after the Big Bang. The neutrinos from this event have a very low energy, about 10 to 10 times lower than what is possible with current direct detection. Even high-energy neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect, so this cosmic neutrino background (CvB) may not be directly observed in detail for many years to come.

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Possible formation of primordial black holes

It may have occurred about 1 second after the Big Bang

See main article: Primordial black hole

Primordial black holes are a hypothetical type of black hole proposed in 1966, which may have formed during the so-called era of radiation domination, due to high densities and inhomogeneous conditions within the first second of cosmic time. Random fluctuations can cause some regions to become dense enough to undergo gravitational collapse, forming black holes. Current theories and understandings place hard limits on the abundance and mass of these objects.

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Lepton's Age

Between 1 second and 10 seconds after the Big Bang

See main article: Lepton Era

Most hydrons and antihydrons annihilate each other at the end of the hydron era, leaving leptons and antileptons dominating the mass of the universe.

Approximately 3 seconds after the Big Bang the temperature of the universe drops to the point where new lepton/antilepton pairs are not created and may leptons and anti-leptons are eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of leptons.

The Age of Photon

Between 10 seconds and 370 thousand years after the Big Bang

See main article: Era Fَton

After most leptons and antileptons are annihilated at the end of the lepton era, the energy of the universe is dominated by photons. These photons are still frequently interacting with protons, electrons and (eventually) nuclei, and will continue to do so for the next 300 thousand years.

Nucleosynthesis of luminous elements

Between 2 minutes and 20 minutes after the Big Bang

See main article: Primordial nucleosynthesis

During the photon era, the temperature of the universe drops to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of nuclear fusion. However, nucleosynthesis only lasts about three minutes, after which the temperature and density of the universe has dropped to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. Right now, there are about three times as many hydrogen ions as there are in helium-4 nuclei and only trace amounts of other nuclei.

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Domination of matter

47,000 years after the Big Bang

See main articles: Scale factors and Structural formation

At this moment, the densities of non-relativistic matter (atomic nuclei) and relativistic radiation (photons) are equal. The Jeans length, which determines the smallest structures that can form (due to competition between gravitational attraction and pressure effects), begins to fall and disturbs, rather than being decimated by free-transmission radiation, which can begin to grow in amplitude.

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First molecules

100,000 years after the Big Bang

Around 100,000 years ago, the universe cooled enough for helium hydride, the first molecule, to form. In April 2019, this molecule was first announced as having been discovered in interstellar space. (Much later, atomic hydrogen reacts with helium hydride to create molecular hydrogen, the fuel necessary for star formation.)

Recombination, decoupling of photons and the cosmic microwave background (CMB)

300,000 years after the Big Bang

See main articles: Cosmic recombination and Cosmic displacement

WMAP data shows the variations in microwave background radiation throughout the Universe from our perspective, although the actual variations are much smoother than the diagram suggests.

The bottom of this box approximates the original 4000 K color of the photons released during decoupling, before becoming redshifted to form cosmic microwave radiation. The entire universe would have appeared as a glowing haze of a color similar to this and a temperature of 4000 K at the time.

Hydrogen and helium atoms begin to form and the density of the universe drops. During recombination, dissociation occurs, causing photons to evolve independently from matter. This means that the photons that make up the cosmic microwave background are a snapshot of the universe during that time.

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Dark Ages and emergence of large-scale structure

Between 370 thousand and about 1 billion years after the Big Bang

See main articles: Large-scale structure of the universe and List of most distant astronomical objects

The Hubble Ultra Deep Fields often show galaxies from an ancient time that tell us the beginning of the era of how Stelesphere was formed.

Another Hubble image shows an infant galaxy forming nearby, which means it happened very recently on the cosmological timescale. This is evidence that the Universe is not yet finished with the formation of galaxies

Structure formation in the Big Bang model proceeds in a hierarchical manner, with smaller structures forming before larger ones. The first structures to form are quasars, which are thought to be bright, starting as active galaxies and population III stars. Before that time, the evolution of the universe could be understood through cosmological linear perturbation theory, that is, all structures could be understood as small deviations from a perfect homogeneous universe. This is computationally relatively easy to study. At this point, nonlinear structures begin to form, and the computational problem becomes much more difficult, involving, for example, N-body simulation with particles.

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Age of darkness

See main article: Hydrogen line

In this era, very few atoms are ionized, so the only radiation emitted is the 21 centimeter spin line of neutral hydrogen. There is currently an ongoing observational effort to detect this deep radiation, as it is, in principle, an even more powerful tool than the cosmic microwave background for studying the early universe.

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Speculated Habitable Era

Between 10 and 17 million years after the Big Bang

See main article: Abiogenesis

The chemistry of life may have begun soon after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable era when the Universe was just 10-17 million years old.

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First structures and stars emerge

Between 150 million and 1 billion years after the Big Bang

See main articles: Star formation, Dwarf galaxy, Baryonic acoustic oscillations, Large-scale structure of the universe, Structural formation and Big Freeze

The first stars, more likely than population III stars, form and begin the process of transforming the light elements that were formed in the Big Bang (hydrogen, helium and lithium) into heavier elements. However, as yet there has been no population of III stars observed, and understanding of them is based on computational models of their formation and evolution. Fortunately observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation can be used to date when star formation began in earnest. Analysis of such observations made by the European Space Agency's Planck telescope, as reported by BBC News in early February 2015, concludes that the first generation of stars lit up 560,000 years after the Big Bang.

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Reionization

See main articles: Reionization, Dwarven Galaxy and Quasar

The first quasars form from gravitational collapse. The intense radiation they emit reionization to the surrounding universe. From this point on, most of the universe is composed of plasma.

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Galaxies, clusters and galactic superclusters

See main article: Formation and evolution of galaxies

Computer-simulated view of the large-scale structure of a part of the universe about 50 million light-years across.

Collapse of large volumes of matter to form a galaxy. Population II stars are formed at the beginning of this process, with population I stars forming later.

Gravitational attraction pulls galaxies toward each other to form groups, clusters, and superclusters.

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Formation of the Solar System

8 billion years after the Big Bang

See main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

Finally, objects of our scale form the Solar System. Our Sun is a young generation star, incorporating the remains of many generations of previous stars, and formed approximately 5 billion years ago, or about 8-9 000 000 000 years after the Big Bang.

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The Universe as it appears today

The universe appeared in the same way as it does now, for many billions of years. It will remain similar for many billions of years into the future.

Based on the emerging science of nucleocosmochronology, the Milky Way's thin galactic disk is estimated to have been formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago.

Era of dark energy domination

From 9.8 billion years after the Big Bang

See main articles: Dark energy and Scaling factors

Starting around 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, the large-scale behavior of the universe is believed to have gradually changed for the third time in its history. Its behavior was originally dominated by radiation (relative constituents objects, such as photons and neutrinos) during the first 47,000 years, and since about 370,000 years of cosmic time, their behavior has been dominated by matter. During its matter-dominated era, the expansion of the universe began to slow as gravity held back the initial outward expansion. But starting around 9.8 billion years of cosmic time, observations show that the expansion of the universe slowly stops slowing down and instead begins to speed up again.

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The distant future and the final destination

See main article: Distant future timeline

With the interpretations of what happened in the universe previously, advances in fundamental physics are necessary before it is possible to know the final fate of the universe with complete certainty. Below are some of the main possibilities.

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Thermal death, 1-100 trillion years

See main article: Heat death of the universe

This scenario is generally considered to be the most likely if the universe continues to expand as it currently does. On a time scale on the order of a trillion years, existing stars will burn out, and the universe will go dark. The universe will approach a highly entropic state. Over a much longer time scale in the eons following this, galaxies will collapse into black holes which will eventually evaporate via Hawking radiation. In some grand unification theories, the decay of protons converts the remaining interstellar gas into positrons and electrons, which then recombine into photons. In this case, the universe will indefinitely be composed only of a bath of uniform radiation, which will slowly redshift into lower and lower energy states, freezing.

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Big Crunch, 100 billion years

See main article: Big Crunch

If the energy density of dark energy were negative or the universe was a closed system, then it would be possible for the expansion of the universe to be reversed and the universe to contract, forming a hot body in a dense state. This would be analogous to a big bang inversion. This is often proposed as part of an oscillatory universe, such as a cyclic model. Current observations suggest that this model of the universe is probably not correct and the expansion will continue.

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Big Rip

See main article: Big Rip

This scenario is only possible if the energy density of dark energy actually increases without limit over time. This dark energy is called ghost energy and is unlike any known type of energy (except virtual particle energy). In this case, the expansion rate of the universe will increase without limit. Gravitationally bound systems such as galaxy clusters, galaxies and, ultimately, the solar system will be torn apart. Eventually, the expansion will be so rapid that it will overcome the electromagnetic forces that hold molecules and atoms together. Eventually, even atomic nuclei will be torn apart and the universe as we know it will end in an unusual type of gravitational singularity. In other words, the universe will expand so much that the electromagnetic force holding things together will fall as the universe expands, causing all things to fall apart.

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Vacuum metastability event

See main article: False Vacuum

If our universe is in a false vacuum, it is possible for the universe to go to a lower energy state. If this happens, all structures will be destroyed instantly, without warning.

Evolutionary history of life

Note: For a more concise outline of the evolution of life, see Chronology of evolution.

Note: Not to be confused with the history of evolution. For other meanings, see History of evolutionary thought.

The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms evolved. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago (abbreviated as Ga, for gigaannum) and evidence suggests that life iu before 3.7 Ga. (Although there is some evidence of life as early as 4.1 to 4.28 Ga, it remains controversial due to the possible non-biological formation of the alleged fossils.) The similarities between all known present-day species indicate that they diverged along the process of evolution from a common ancestor. Approximately 1 trillion species currently live on Earth, of which only 1.75-1.8 million have been named and 1.8 million documented in a central database. These currently living species represent less than one percent of all species that have ever lived on Earth.

Axis scale in millions of years.

Evidence for the existence of older life comes from biogenic carbon samples and stromatolite fossils discovered 3.7 billion years ago, metasedimentary rocks discovered in west Greenland. In 2015, possible "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. In March 2017, putative evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth was reported in the form of fossilized microorganisms discovered in precipitates from hydrothermal vents in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, which may have lived 4.28 billion years ago. of years, not long after the formation of the oceans, 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth, 4.54 billion years ago.

Biofilms of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant life form in the early Archean and many of the key steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them. The evolution of photosynthesis with oxygen, about 3.5 billion years ago, eventually led to the oxygenation of the atmosphere, starting around 2.4 billion years ago. While eukaryotic cells may have been present earlier, their evolution was accelerated when they began to use oxygen in their metabolism. The oldest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles dates back to 1.85 billion years ago. Later, around 1,700 million years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialized functions.

The first land plants date back to around 450 million years ago, although evidence suggests that algae formed on land as early as 1.2 billion years ago. Land plants were so successful that it is thought they contributed to the Devonian extinction. Invertebrate animals appeared during the Ediacaran, while vertebrates appeared about 525 million years ago, during the Cambrian explosion.

During the Permian, synpsids, including the ancestors of mammals, dominated the earth, but with the Permian-Triassic extinction 251 million years ago, this came close to decimating all complex life. During the recovery from this catastrophe, Archosauria became the most abundant terrestrial vertebrates, replacing therapsids in the mid-Triassic. A group of archosauria lived when dinosaurs dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous, while the ancestors of mammals survived as small insectivores. After the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 65 million years ago killed off non-avian dinosaurs, mammals rapidly increased in size and diversity. Such a mass extinction may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.

Fossil evidence indicates that flowering plants appeared and rapidly diversified at the beginning of the Cretaceous, between 130 million and 90 million years ago, probably through coevolution with pollinating insects. Flowering plants and marine phytoplankton are still the dominant producers of organic matter. Social insects appeared around the same time as flowering plants. Although they only occupy a small part of the insect "tree of life", they now make up about half of the total mass of insects. Humans evolved from a lineage of different hominid species whose oldest fossils date back more than 6 million years. Although the oldest members of this lineage had brains the size of a chimpanzee, there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after 3 million years.

Early history of Earth

History of the Earth and life

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Land and System. Solar formed

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Great Late Bombardment

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Oldest evidence of life (-4100)

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Oldest multicellular organism

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Terrestrial invertebrates and

oldest plants

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Extinction of non-avian dinosaurs

Scale: Ma (millions of years)

See main article: History of the Earth

The oldest meteorite fragments found on Earth are about 4.54 billions of years old; This, together mainly with the dating of ancient lead deposits, has placed the Earth's estimated age at around this time. The Moon has the same composition as the Earth's crust but does not contain a planetary core rich in iron like Earth's. Many scientists think that only about 40 million years later a planetoid struck the Earth, throwing crustal material into space that eventually formed the Moon. Another hypothesis is that the Earth and the Moon began to coalesce at the same time, but Earth, having a much stronger gravity, attracted almost all the iron particles in the area.

Until recently, the oldest rocks found on Earth were estimated to be around 3.8 billion years old, leading scientists to believe for decades that the Earth's surface was molten by then. Accordingly, they named this part of Earth's history the Hadean eon, meaning "infernal." However, analyzes of zircons formed between 4.0 and 4.4 billion years ago indicate that the crust solidified around 100 million years ago. after the planet's formation and the planet quickly acquired oceans and an atmosphere, which may have been capable of supporting life.

Evidence collected from the moon indicates that from 4.0 to 3.8 billion years ago it suffered an intense late bombardment by debris left over from the formation of the Solar System, and the Earth should have suffered an even more intense bombardment due to its greater gravity . Although there is no direct evidence of conditions on Earth 4.0 - 3.8 billion years ago, there is no reason to think that Earth was not affected by this intense late bombardment. The event may have removed any previous atmosphere and oceans; in this case gases and water resulting from comet impacts may have contributed to its replacement, although volcanic degassing on Earth would have contributed at least half. However, if underground microbial life had evolved to this point, it would have survived the bombardment.

Oldest evidence of life on Earth

See main article: First known life forms

The oldest organisms that have been identified were tiny and had relatively few features, and their fossils resemble small rods, which are difficult to differentiate from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest indisputable evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates back 3 billion years. Other discoveries in rocks dated to around 2.5 billion years ago have also been interpreted as bacteria, with geochemical evidence apparently showing the presence of life 3.8 billion years ago. However these analyzes were scrutinized carefully, and non-biological processes were found that could produce all these "signs of life" that were reported. Although this does not prove that the structures found have a non-biological origin, they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 billion years ago have been interpreted as evidence of life, although these claims have not been examined in detail by critics.

Evidence of fossilized microorganisms thought to be between 3.77 billion to 4.28 billion years old has been found in the Nuvvuagittuq Greenrock Belt in Quebec, Canada, although the evidence is disputed as inconclusive.

Origin of life on Earth

See main articles: Abiogenesis, Common origin, Evidence of evolution and Homology (biology)

Interactive evolutionary tree showing the divergence of modern species from a common ancestor at the center. The three domains are colored with bacteria in blue, archaea in green and eukaryotes in red.

All living organisms on Earth must have a single universal ancestor, because it would be virtually impossible for two or more separate lineages to be able to independently develop the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms.

Life "seeded" from elsewhere

See main article: Panspermia

The idea that life on Earth was "seeded" from other parts of the universe dates back to at least the 5th century. In the 20th century it was proposed by physical chemist Svante Arrhenius, astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe, and molecular biologist Francis Crick and by chemist Leslie Orgel. There are three main versions of the "seeding from another location" hypothesis: coming from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments launched into space by a large meteor impact, the only credible source being Mars; by extra-terrestrial visitors, possibly through accidental contamination with microorganisms they brought with them; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means. Experiments in low Earth orbits, such as EXOSTACK, have shown that Some microorganism spores can survive the shock of being catapulted into space and some can survive exposure to radiation from outer space for at least 5.7 years (duration of the experiment). Scientists are divided over the likelihood that life originated independently on Mars, or on other planets in our galaxy.

Independent appearance on Earth

See main article: Abiogenesis

Life on Earth is based on carbon and water. Carbon provides stable structures for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment, especially carbon dioxide. There is no other chemical element whose properties are similar enough to those of carbon to be called an analogue; Silicon, the element directly below carbon in the periodic table, does not form many complex stable molecules, and because most of its compounds are insoluble in water and because silicon dioxide is a hard, abrasive solid in contrast to carbon dioxide in temperatures associated with living things, it would be more difficult for organisms to extract. The elements boron and phosphorus have more complex chemistry, but have other limitations in relation to carbon. Water is an excellent solvent and has two other useful properties: the fact that ice floats allows aquatic organisms to survive under it in winter; and its molecules have electrically negative and positive ends, which allows it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents. Other good solvents, such as ammonia, are liquid only at temperatures so low that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life and do not have the other advantages of water. Organisms based on alternative biochemistry may, however, be possible on other planets.

Research into how life may have arisen from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self-replication, the ability of an organism to produce offspring very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and outer cell membranes, which allow food in and waste out but exclude unwanted substances. Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go, as theoretical and empirical approaches are just beginning to make contact with each other.

First replication: RNA world

See main articles: Last common ancestor and RNA world hypothesis

Even the simplest members of the three modern domains of life use DNA to record their "recipes" and a complex set of RNA molecules and proteins to "read" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance, and self-replication. The discovery that some RNA molecules can catalyze their own replication and construction of proteins led to the hypothesis of earlier life forms based entirely on RNA. These ribozymes could have formed an RNA world in which there were individuals but no species, as mutations and horizontal gene transfer would mean that the offspring in each generation would likely have genomes different from those with which their parents started out. Later, RNA would have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable, and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities that a single organism can have. Ribozymes remain the main components of ribosomes, the "protein factories" of modern cells. Evidence suggests the first RNA molecules formed on Earth before 4.17 Ga.

Although short self-replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories, doubts have been raised about whether natural, non-biological RNA synthesis is possible. The first "ribozymes" may have been formed by simpler nucleic acids, such as PNA, TNA or GNA, which would later have been replaced by RNA.

In 2003, it was proposed that porous metal sulfide precipitates would aid RNA synthesis at about 100 °C (212 °F) and ocean floor pressures near hydrothermal vents. In this hypothesis, lipid membranes would be the last major cellular components to appear and until then, proto-cells would be confined to the pores.

First metabolism: iron–sulfur world

See main article: Iron–sulfur world hypothesis

A series of experiments beginning in 1997 showed that the initial stages in the formation of proteins from inorganic materials, including carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide, could be achieved using iron sulfide and nickel sulfide as catalysts. Most stages required temperatures of about 100 °C (212 °F) and moderate pressures, although one stage required 250 °C (482 °F) and a pressure equivalent to that found beneath 7 km (4.3 mi) of rock. Therefore, it has been suggested that self-sustaining protein synthesis could occur laughed near hydrothermal vents.

First membranes: lipid world

= heads of lipid molecules that attract water.

= water repellent tails.

Cross-section through a liposome.

It has been suggested that double-walled "bubbles" of lipids, like those that form the outer membranes of cells, may have been an essential first step. Experiments that simulated conditions on early Earth reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form liposomes, double-walled "bubbles," and then reproduce. Although they are not intrinsically information carriers like nucleic acids, they would be subject to natural selection for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids, such as RNA, may then have formed more easily inside liposomes than outside them.

Clay hypothesis

See main articles: Graham Cairns-Smith#Clay hypothesis and RNA world hypothesis

RNA is complex and there are doubts whether it can be produced non-biologically in nature. Some clays, notably montmorillonite, have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self-replication of their crystalline pattern; They are subject to an analogue of natural selection, as the "species" of clay that grows fastest in a particular environment quickly becomes dominant, and can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules. Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active advocates.

Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite can also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into "bubbles" and that the "bubbles" can encapsulate RNA attached to the clay. These "bubbles" can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and then divide. The formation of the first cells may have been aided by similar processes.

A similar hypothesis presents self-replicating iron-rich clays as the progenitors of nucleotides, lipids and amino acids.

Environmental and evolutionary impact of microbial mats

See main articles: Microbial mat and Large oxygenation event

Modern stromatolites at Shark Bay, Western Australia.

Microbial mats are multilayered, multispecies colonies of bacteria and other organisms that are usually only a few millimeters thick but still contain a wide variety of chemical environments, each favoring a different set of microorganisms. To some extent, each mat forms its own food chain, as the byproducts of each group of microorganisms often serve as "food" for adjacent groups.

Stromatolites are stubby pillars built like microorganisms into mats that migrate slowly upward to avoid being suffocated by sediment deposited on them by water. There has been vigorous debate over the validity of alleged pre-3 Ga fossils, with critics arguing that so-called stromatolites could have been formed by non-biological processes. In 2006, another stromatolite find was reported in the same part of Australia as the previous ones, in rocks dated to 3.5 Ga.

In modern underwater mats, the top layer usually consists of photosynthetic cyanobacteria that create an oxygen-rich environment, while the bottom layer is oxygen-free and often dominated by hydrogen sulfide emitted by the organisms living there. It is estimated that the appearance of oxygenated photosynthesis by bacteria in carpets increased biological productivity by a factor of between 100 and 1,000. The reducing agent used by oxygenated photosynthesis is water, which is much more abundant than the geologically produced reducing agents required by previous non-oxygenated photosynthesis. From that point on, life itself produced significantly more of the resources it needed than geochemical processes. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it, but it greatly increases the metabolic efficiency of organisms adapted to oxygen. Oxygen became a significant component of Earth's atmosphere at about 2.4 Ga. Although eukaryotes may have existed much earlier, oxygenation of the atmosphere was a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are constructed. The boundary between the oxygen-rich and oxygen-free layers in the microbial mats would have moved upward when photosynthesis was stopped overnight, and then downward when it resumed the next day. This would have created selection pressure for organisms in this intermediate zone to acquire the ability to tolerate and use oxygen, possibly via endosymbiosis, where one organism lives inside another and both benefit from their association.

Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical "toolkits" of all organisms. mat-forming anisms. Consequently, they are the most self-sufficient of the mat organisms and have been well adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first phytoplankton, providing the basis of most marine food chains.

Diversification of eukaryotes

Eukarya

Diaphoretickes

Archaeplastida (land plants, green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes)

Hacrobia

SAR (stramenophylls, alveolata, and rhizaria)

Excavata

Amorphea

Amoebozoa

Sulcozoa

Opisthokonta

Metazoa (animals)

Fungi

A possible family tree of eukaryotes

See main article: Eukaryota

Chromatin, nucleus, endomembranous system and mitochondria

Eukaryotes may have been present long before the oxygenation of the atmosphere, but most modern eukaryotes require oxygen, which their mitochondria use to fuel the production of ATP, the internal energy supply of all known cells. In the 1970s, it was proposed and after much debate, widely accepted that eukaryotes arose as a result of a sequence of endosymbiosis between prokaryotes. For example: a predatory microorganism invaded a large prokaryote, probably an Archaean, but the attack was neutralized, and the attacker took up residence and evolved into the first of the mitochondria; one of these chimeras later tried to swallow a photosynthetic cyanobacteria, but the victim survived inside the attacker and the new combination became the ancestor of plants; and so on. After the start of each endosymbiosis, the partners would have eliminated the unproductive duplication of genetic functions by reorganizing their genomes, a process that sometimes involved the transfer of genes between them. Another hypothesis proposes that mitochondria were originally endosymbionts that metabolize sulfur or hydrogen and later became oxygen consumers.[102] On the other hand, mitochondria may have been part of the original equipment of eukaryotes.

There is debate about when eukaryotes first appeared: the presence of steranes in Australian shales may indicate that eukaryotes were present 2.7 Ga; however, an analysis in 2008 concluded that these chemicals seeped into rocks younger than 2.2 Ga and prove nothing about the origins of eukaryotes. Fossils of the alga Grypania have been reported in rocks 1.85 billion years old (originally dated to 2.1 Ga, but later revised), and indicate that eukaryotes with organelles had already evolved. A diverse collection of algal fossils has been found in rocks dated between 1.5 and 1.4 Ga. The first known fungal fossils date back to 1.43 Ga.

Plastids

Plastids, the superclass of organelles of which chloroplasts are the best-known examples, are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The symbiosis evolved around 1.5 Ga and allowed eukaryotes to carry out oxygenated photosynthesis.[96] Three evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic plastids have since emerged, in which the plastids are named differently: chloroplasts in green algae and plants, rhodoplasts in red algae, and cyanelles in glaucophytes.

Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms

Evolution of sexual reproduction

See main articles: Origin and evolution of eukaryotic sex and Sexual reproduction

The defining characteristics of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes are meiosis and fertilization. In this type of reproduction there is a lot of genetic recombination, in which the descendants receive 50% of the genes from each parent, unlike asexual reproduction, in which there is no recombination. Bacteria also exchange DNA through bacterial conjugation, with which they can acquire, for example, genes for resistance to antibiotics and other toxins and the ability to use new metabolites. However, conjugation is not a means of reproduction and is not limited to members of the same species. There are cases where bacteria transfer DNA to plants and animals.

On the other hand, bacterial transformation is clearly an adaptation for the transfer of DNA between bacteria of the same species. Bacterial transformation is a complex process involving the products of several bacterial genes and can be considered a form of sex in bacteria. This process occurs naturally in at least 67 prokaryotic species (from seven different phyla). Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation.

The disadvantages of sexual reproduction are well known: genetic redistribution from recombination can result in favorable gene combinations; and as males do not directly increase the number of descendants in the next generation, an asexual population can exceed the number of descendants and displace in just 50 generations a sexual population that is equal in all other aspects. However, the vast majority of animals, plants, fungi and protists reproduce they produce themselves sexually. There is strong evidence that sexual reproduction originated very early in the history of eukaryotes and that the genes that control it have changed very little since then. Explaining how sexual reproduction evolved and survived is an unsolved puzzle.

Horodyskia may have been an early metazoan, or a colonial foramina. Apparently, it is organized into a few large main masses as the thickness of the sediment layers around its base has increased.

The Red Queen Hypothesis indicates that sexual reproduction provides protection against parasites, because it is easier for parasites to evolve ways to overcome the defenses of genetically identical clones than of sexual species with mobile targets, and there is some experimental evidence for this. However, there is still doubt as to whether this would explain the survival of the sexual species if several similar clone species were present, as one of the clones may survive parasite attacks long enough to outcompete the sexual species. Furthermore, contrary to what is expected from the Red Queen hypothesis, Kathryn A. Hanley et al. they found that the prevalence, abundance and mean intensity of mite parasites were significantly higher in sexual controls than in asexuals living in the same habitat. Furthermore, biologist Matthew Parker, after reviewing many genetic studies on plant disease resistance, was unable to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the main selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in the host.

Alexey Kondrashov's deterministic mutation hypothesis holds that each organism has more than one harmful mutation, and the combined effects of these mutations are more harmful than the sum of the damage caused by each mutation separately. In this case, sexual recombination of genes will reduce the damage that bad mutations cause to offspring, and at the same time, remove some bad mutations from the genetic background, isolating them in individuals who die quickly because they have an above-average number of bad mutations . However, evidence suggests that the postulates of the deterministic mutation hypothesis are weak, because many species have on average less than one harmful mutation per individual and no species that has been investigated shows evidence of synergy between harmful mutations.

The random nature of recombination causes the relative abundance of alternative traits to vary from generation to generation. This genetic drift alone is insufficient to make sexual reproduction advantageous, but a combination of genetic drift and natural selection may be sufficient. When chance produces combinations of good traits, natural selection offers a great advantage to lines in which those traits are genetically linked. On the other hand, the benefits of good characteristics are neutralized if they appear together with the bad ones. Sexual recombination gives good traits the opportunity to be linked to other good traits, and mathematical models suggest that this may be more than enough to offset the disadvantages of sexual reproduction. Other combinations of hypotheses that are inappropriate separately were also examined.

The adaptive function of sex remains an important unresolved question today. Competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex have been reviewed by John A. Birdsell and Christopher Wills. All of the hypotheses discussed above depend on the possible beneficial effects of random genetic variation produced by genetic recombination. An alternative conception is that sex originated, and has been maintained, as a process of repairing damaged DNA, and that the genetic variation produced is an occasionally beneficial byproduct.

Multicellularity

See main article: Multicellular organism

Simpler definitions of "multicellular" or "multicellular", for example "having multiple cells", may include colonial cyanobacteria such as Nostoc. Even a technical definition such as "having the same genome but different cell types" would still include some genera of Volvox green algae, which have cells specialized for reproduction. Multicellularity has evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals, fungi, plants, brown algae, cyanobacteria, mucilaginous fungi, and myxobacteria. In order not to make this article too long, this article focuses on organisms that display the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types, although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity may be considered "rather anthropocentric".

A mucilaginous fungus solves a maze. The mucilaginous fungus (yellow) explored and solved the maze (left). When researchers placed sugar (red) in two separate spots Once removed, most mucilaginous molds concentrate most of their mass there and leave only the most efficient connection between the two points (right).

The initial advantage of multicellularity may be due to: more efficient sharing of nutrients that are digested outside the cell, increasing resistance to predators, many of which are attacked by phagocytization; the ability to withstand currents when adhering to a firm surface; the ability to reach higher to feed through filtration or obtain light for photosynthesis; the ability to create an internal environment that provides protection from the external environment; and even the opportunity to form a group of cells. "intelligently", sharing information. These characteristics would also provide opportunities for other organisms to diversify, creating more diverse environments than microbial mats could generate.

Multicellularity with differentiated cells is beneficial for the organism as a whole, but disadvantageous from the point of view of individual cells, many of which have lost the opportunity to reproduce on their own. In an asexual multicellular organism, unruly cells that maintain the ability to reproduce can take over and reduce the organism to an undifferentiated cell mass. Sexual reproduction eliminates these unruly cells from the next generation and therefore appears to be a requirement for complex multicellularity.

Available evidence indicates that eukaryotes evolved much earlier, but remained unnoticed until rapid diversification around 1,000 million years ago. The only thing in which eukaryotes clearly outnumber bacteria and archaea is their ability to assume multiple forms, and sexual reproduction has allowed eukaryotes to take advantage of this to produce organisms with multiple cells that differ in form and function.

By comparing the composition of transcription factor families and regulatory network motifs between unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms, scientists discovered that there are many new transcription factor families and three new types of regulatory network motifs in multicellular organisms, and the new Families of transcription factors are preferentially connected in these new network motifs, which are essential for multicellular development. These results propose a plausible mechanism for the contribution of new families of transcription factors and new network motifs to the origin of multicellular organisms at the transcriptional regulatory level.

Fossil evidence

Fossils of the Francevillian biota, dating back to 2,100 Ma, are the oldest known fossil organisms that are clearly multicellular. They may have differentiated cells. Another very old multicellular fossil is Qingshania, dated to 1,700 Ma, which appears to consist of virtually identical cells. The red algae called Bangiomorpha, dating back to 1,200 Ma, is the first known organism to have specialized differentiated cells with certainty, and it is also the oldest known organism to reproduce sexually. Fossils from 1,430 Ma interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells. The "chain of two" organism Horodyskia, found in rocks dating from 1,500 Ma to 900 Ma, may have been an early metazoan, however, it has also been interpreted as a colonial foramina.

Animal emergency

More information: Animalia, Ediacaran Biota, Cambrian Explosion, Type Fauna of the Burgess Shale and Crown Group § Stem Groups

Bilateria

Deuterostomia (chordates, hemichordates, echinoderms)

Protostomy

Ecdysozoa (arthropods, nematodes, tardigrades, etc.)

Lophotrochozoa (molluscs, annelids, brachypods, etc.)

Acoelomorpha

Cnidaria (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals)

Ctenophora (sea combs)

Placozoa

Porifera (sponges): Calcarea

Porifera: Hexactinellida & Demospongiae

Choanoflagellata

Mesomycetozoea

A family tree of animals.

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes, and are distinguished from plants, algae and fungi by not having cell walls. All animals are mobile, even if only at certain stages of life. All animals except sponges have bodies differentiated into separate tissues, including muscles, which move parts of the animal by contracting, and nervous tissue, which transmits and processes signals. In November 2019, researchers reported the discovery of Caveasphaera, a multicellular organism found in rocks 609 million years old, which is not easily defined as an animal or non-animal, which may be related to one of the earliest instances of animal evolution. Studies of Caveasphaera fossils have suggested that animal-like embryonic development arose long before the earliest clearly defined animal fossils. and may be consistent with studies that suggest that e Animal evolution may have started around 750 million years ago.

However, the earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the very modern-looking cnidarians (the group that includes jellyfish, sea anemones, and Hydra), possibly from around 580 Ma, although fossils from the Doushantuo Formation can only be dated about. Its presence implies that the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages had already diverged.

The Ediacaran biota, which flourished in the last 40 million years before the beginning of the Cambrian, were the first animals more than a few centimeters long. Many were flat and had a "padded" appearance and looked so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate kingdom, Vendozoa. Others, however, have been interpreted as primitive molluscs (Kimberella), echinoderms (Arkarua) and arthropods (Spriggina, Parvancorina). There is still debate over the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features that allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the Ediacarans. However, there appears to be little doubt that Kimberella' was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal, in other words, an animal significantly more complex than cnidarians.

The small shell fauna is a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and Middle Cambrian periods. The oldest, Cloudina, shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the beginning of an evolutionary arms race. Some tiny shells from the early Cambrian almost certainly belonged to molluscs, while the owners of some "armor plates", Halkieria and Microdictyon, were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian lagerstنtte that preserved soft-bodied animals.

Opabinia made the single greatest contribution to modern interest in the Cambrian explosion.

In the 1970s, there was already a debate about whether the emergence of modern phyla was "explosive" or gradual, but hidden by the scarcity of fossils of Precambrian animals. A reanalysis of fossils from the Burgess Shale lagerstette increased interest in the subject by revealing animals, such as Opabinia, that did not fit into any known phylum. At the time, this was interpreted as evidence that modern phyla evolved very quickly in the Cambrian explosion and that the "strange wonders" of the Burgess Shale showed that the Early Cambrian was an exclusively experimental period of animal evolution. Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the "strange wonders" were evolutionary "aunts" or "cousins" of modern groups—for example, that Opabinia was a member of the lobopodes, a group that includes the ancestors of arthropods, and which may have been closely related to modern tardagrades. However, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was actually explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it seems unique in the history of animals.

Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates

Acanthodians were among the first vertebrates with jaws.

See main articles: Chordates and Evolution of fish

More information: Chordate genomics

Most of the animals at the center of the Cambrian explosion debate are [Protostomia|protostomes], one of the two main groups of complex animals. The other main group, the deuterostomes, contains invertebrates such as sea stars and sea urchins (echinoderms), as well as chordates (see below). Many echinoderms have hard calcite "shells", which are quite common among small shell fauna from the Early Cambrian onwards. Other groups of deuterostomes are soft-bodied, and most of the significant Cambrian deuterostome fossils come from the Chengjiang fauna, a lagerstنtte in China. Chordates are another important group of deuterostomes: animals with a distinct dorsal nerve cord. Chordates include soft-bodied invertebrates such as tunicates, as well as vertebrates—animals with backbones. While the tunicate fossils predate the Cambrian explosion, the Chengjiang Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia fossils appear to be true vertebrates, and Haikouichthys had distinct vertebrae, which may have been slightly mineralized. Vertebrates with jaws, such as acanthodians, first appeared in the Late Ordovician.

Colonization of the land

See also: First known life forms

Adapting to life on land is a great challenge: all terrestrial organisms need to avoid drying out and all those above microscopic size must create special structures to withstand gravity; breathing and gas exchange systems need to change; reproductive systems cannot They can depend on water to transport eggs and sperm to each other. Although the first evidence of terrestrial plants and animals dates back to the Ordovician period (488 to 444 Ma), and a number of lineages of microorganisms reached land much earlier, modern terrestrial ecosystems only appeared at the end of the Devonian, around 385 to 359 Ma. As of May 2017, evidence of the oldest known life on Earth may have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers) discovered in the Croton from Pilbara, Western Australia. In July 2018, scientists reported that the oldest life on Earth may have been bacteria that lived on Earth 3.22 billion years ago. In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, called Ourasphaira giraldae, in the Canadian Arctic, which may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants lived on land.

Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants

Oxygen is a powerful oxidant whose accumulation in the Earth's atmosphere resulted from the development of photosynthesis over 3 Ga, in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which were the most primitive oxygenated photosynthetic organisms. Brown algae accumulate inorganic mineral antioxidants such as rubidium, vanadium, zinc, iron, copper, molybdenum, selenium and iodine, which is more than 30,000 times the concentration of this element in seawater. Protective endogenous antioxidant enzymes and exogenous dietary antioxidants helped prevent oxidative damage. Most marine mineral antioxidants act in cells as essential trace elements in oxidation-reduction of metalloenzymes and antioxidants.

When plants and animals began to enter rivers and land around 500 Ma, environmental deficiency of these marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life. Land plants have slowly optimized the production of “new” endogenous antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid, polyphenols, flavonoids, tocopherol, etc. Some of these appeared more recently, in the last 200–50 Ma, in fruits and flowers of angiosperm plants.

In fact, angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the Late Jurassic period. Plants employ antioxidants to defend their structures against reactive oxygen species produced during photosynthesis. Animals are exposed to the same oxidants and have developed endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems. Iodine in the form of ion iodide I is the most primitive and abundant electron-rich essential element in the diet of marine and terrestrial organisms, and iodide acts as an electron donor and has this ancient antioxidant function in all iodide-concentrating cells, from primitive marine algae to more recent land vertebrates.

Soil evolution

Before the colonization of the earth, soil, a combination of mineral particles and decomposed organic matter, did not exist. The surfaces of the earth would be bare rock or unstable sand produced by weathering. The water and any nutrients in it would have drained away very quickly. In the sub-Cambrian peneplain in Sweden, for example, the maximum depth of weathering kaolinitization in the Neoproterozoic is about 5 m; in contrast, nearby kaolin deposits developed in the Mesozoic are much thicker. It has been argued that in the late Neoproterozoic sheet washing was a dominant process of erosion of surface material due to the lack of plants on land.

Lichens growing on concrete.

Cyanobacterial biofilms, which are not plants but use the same photosynthesis mechanisms, have been found in modern deserts and only in areas unsuitable for vascular plants. This suggests that microbial mats may have been the first organisms to colonize dry land, possibly in the Precambrian. Mat-forming cyanobacteria may have gradually developed resistance to desiccation as they spread from the seas to coastal areas and then onto land. Lichens, which are symbiotic combinations of a fungus (almost always an ascomycete) and one or more photosynthesizers (green algae or cyanobacteria), are also important colonizers of lifeless environments, and their ability to break down rocks contributes to soil formation in situations in which plants do not survive. The first known ascomycete fossils date from 423 to 419 Ma in the Silurian.

Soil formation would have been very slow until the appearance of burrowing animals, which mix the mineral and organic components of the soil and whose feces are the main source of the organic components. Burrows have been found in Ordovician sediments and are attributed to annelids ("worms") or arthropods.

Plants and the timber crisis in the Middle Devonian

See main article: Evolutionary history of plants

Reconstruction of Cooksonia, a Silurian vascular plant.

Late Devonian fossilized trees in Gilboa Fossil Forest.

In aquatic algae, almost all cells are capable of photosynthesis and are almost independent. Life on land required plants to become internally more complex and specialized: photosynthesis was more efficient at the top; roots were necessary to extract water from the ground; the intermediate parts became supports and transport systems for water and nutrients.

Spores of land plants, possibly such as liverworts, have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about 476 million years ago. In Middle Silurian rocks from 430 Ma there are fossils of real plants, including mosses such as Baragwanathia; most were less than 10 cm (3.9 in) and some appear closely related to vascular plants, the group that includes trees.

By the end of the Devonian 370 Ma, trees like Archeopteris were so abundant that they changed river systems from mostly braided to mostly meandering, because their roots held the ground firmly in place. In fact, they caused the "Late Devonian timber crisis" because:

They removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reducing the greenhouse effect and causing an ice age in the Carboniferous period. In later ecosystems, carbon dioxide "trapped" in wood is returned to the atmosphere by the decomposition of dead wood. However, the oldest fossil evidence of fungi that can decompose wood also comes from the Late Devonian.

The increased depth of plant roots has led to more nutrients being washed into rivers and seas by rain. This caused algal blooms whose high oxygen consumption caused anexic events in deeper waters, increasing the extinction rate among deep-sea animals.

Land invertebrates

Animals had to change their feeding and excretory systems, and most land animals developed internal fertilization of their eggs. The difference in the index of refraction between water and air required changes in his eyes. On the other hand, in some ways, movement and breathing became easier, and the better transmission of high-frequency sounds in the air stimulated the development of hearing.

The relative number of species contributed to the total for each phylum of animals. Nematoda is the phylum with the most individual organisms, while arthropods have the most species.

The oldest air-breathing animal is Pneumodesmus, an archopolypodan millipede from the Middle Silurian, around 428 million years old. Its terrestrial nature with air breathing is evidenced by the presence of spiracles, the openings of the tracheal systems. However, some earlier fossil remains from the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary around 490 Ma are interpreted as tracks of large amphibious arthropods in coastal sand dunes and may have been made by euthycarcinoids, which are considered evolutionary "aunts" of myripods. Other fossil remains from the Late Ordovician just over 445 Ma probably represent terrestrial invertebrates, and there is clear evidence of numerous arthropods on coasts and alluvial plains just before the Silurian-Devonian boundary, about 415 Ma, including signs that some arthropods ate plants. Arthropods were well pre-adapted to colonize land because their existing articulated exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation, support against gravity, and a means of locomotion that did not depend on water.

The fossil record for other important groups of invertebrates on land is poor: none for nonparasitic flatworms, nematodes, or nemertines; some parasitic nematodes have been fossilized in amber; fossils of annelid worms are known from the Carboniferous, but they may still have been aquatic animals; The oldest gastropod fossils on land date from the Upper Carboniferous, and this group may have had to wait until the leaf layer became abundant enough to provide the moist conditions they need.

The first confirmed fossils of flying insects date from the Late Carboniferous, but it is believed that insects developed the ability to fly in the Lower Carboniferous or even the Late Devonian. This gave them a wide range of ecological niches for feeding and reproduction, and a means of escaping predators and unfavorable changes in the environment. About 99% of modern insect species fly or are descendants of flying species.

First land vertebrates

See main articles: Tetrapod and Evolutionary history of tetrapods

Acanthostega changed the view on the early evolution of tetrapods.

"Fish"

Osteolepiformes

Panderichthyidae

Obruchevichthidae

Acanthostega

Ichthyostega

Tulerpeton

Ancient labyrinthodonts

Anthracosa

uria

Amniotes

A family tree of tetrapods

Tetrapods, four-limbed vertebrates, evolved from other rhipidistian fishes in a relatively short period of time during the Late Devonian (370 to 360 Ma). The first groups are grouped as labyrinthodonts. They maintained fry-like aquatic tadpoles, a system still seen in modern amphibians.

Iodine and T4/T3 stimulate amphibious metamorphosis and the evolution of the nervous system, transforming the vegetarian aquatic tadpole into the "more evolved" terrestrial carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. The new hormonal action of T3 was made possible by the formation of T3 receptors in vertebrate cells. Firstly, around 600-500 million years ago, alpha T3 receptors with metamorphosing action appeared in primitive Chordata and then, around 250-150 million years ago, beta T3 receptors with metabolic and thermogenetic actions appeared in birds and Mammalia. . From the 1950s to the early 1980s, tetrapods were thought to have evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land, possibly to get from a drying lake to a deeper one. However, in 1987, nearly complete fossils of Acanthostega from around 363 Ma showed that this Late Devonian transitional animal had legs and lungs and gills, but could never have survived on land: its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to support their weight; his ribs were too short to prevent his lungs from being squeezed by his weight; its fish-like tail fin would have been damaged by being dragged along the ground. The current hypothesis is that Acanthostega, which was about 1 meter (3.3 feet) long, was a fully aquatic predator that hunted in shallow waters. Its skeleton differed from most fish in ways that allowed it to lift its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged, including: its jaws show modifications that would have allowed it to swallow air; the bones at the back of the skull are locked together, providing strong attachment points for the muscles that lift your head; the head is not connected to the shoulder girdle and has a distinct neck.

The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help explain why breathing air would have been an advantage: leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that attacked them; they would have been attractive prey, but the environment was not suitable for large predatory marine fish; breathing air would have been necessary because these waters would have lacked oxygen, since warm water retains less dissolved oxygen than colder seawater and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used up some of the oxygen.

Later discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between Acanthostega and fully fish-like animals. Unfortunately, there is a gap (Romer's gap) of about 30 Ma between fossils of ancient tetrapods and fossils of Middle Carboniferous vertebrates that appear well adapted for life on land. Some of them resemble the earliest relatives of modern amphibians, most of which need to keep their skin moist and lay their eggs in water, while others are accepted as the earliest relatives of amniotes, whose waterproof skin and egg membranes allow them to live and breed away from water.

Dinosaurs, birds and mammals

More information: Dinosaurs § Evolutionary history, Origin of birds and Evolutionary history of mammals

Amniotes

Synapsida

Ancient synapsoids (extinct)

Pelycosauria

Extinct pelycosaurs

Therapsida

Extinct therapeutics

Mammaliaformes

Extinct mammaliaforms

mammals

Sauropsida

Anapsida; Whether turtles belong here is debated

Captorhinidae and Protorothyrididae (extinct)

Diapsid

Araeoscelidia (extinct)

Squamata (lizards and snakes)

Archosauria

Extinct archosaurs

Crocodylia

Pterosaurs (extinct)

Dinosaurs

Theropoda

Extinct

theropodos

Birds

Sauropoda

(extinct)

Ornithischia (extinct)

Possible family tree of dinosaurs, birds and mammals.

Amniotes, whose eggs can survive in dry environments, probably evolved in the Late Carboniferous period (330 to 298.9 Ma). The first fossils of the two surviving groups of amniotes, synapsids and sauropsids, date back to around 313 million years ago. The synapsoid pelycosaurs and their descendants, the therapsids, are the most common terrestrial vertebrates in the best-known Permian fossil beds (298.9 to 251.902 Ma). However, at the time, they were all in temperate zones in mid-latitudes, and there is evidence that hotter, drier environments closer to the Equator were dominated by sauropsids and amphibians.

The and The Permian-Triassic wind of extinction eliminated almost all terrestrial vertebrates, as well as the vast majority of other life forms. During the slow recovery from this catastrophe, estimated to have taken 30 million years, a previously obscure sauropsoid group became the most abundant and diverse of terrestrial vertebrates: some fossils of archosauriforms ("ruling lizard forms") were found in Late Permian rocks. , but in the Middle Triassic, archosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates. Dinosaurs distinguished themselves from other archosaurs in the late Triassic and became the dominant land vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (201.3 to 66 Ma).

During the Late Jurassic, birds evolved from small predatory theropod dinosaurs. The first birds inherited teeth and long bony tails from their dinosaur ancestors, but some developed horny, toothless beaks in the Late Jurassic and short pygstyle tails in the Early Cretaceous.

While archosaurs and dinosaurs were becoming more dominant in the Triassic, the mammal-shaped successors of the therapsids evolved into small, mostly nocturnal insectivores. This ecological role may have promoted the evolution of mammals, for example, nocturnal life may have accelerated the development of endothermy ("warm-blooded") and hair or skin. By 195 Ma in the Early Jurassic, there were animals that were very similar to today's mammals in many ways. Unfortunately, there is a gap in the fossil record throughout the Middle Jurassic. However, fossil teeth discovered in Madagascar indicate that the split between the lineage leading to monotremes and that leading to other living mammals occurred around 167 million years ago. After dominating terrestrial vertebrate niches for about 150 Ma, non-avian dinosaurs perished in the Cretaceous-Palegenean extinction event (66 Ma) along with many other groups of organisms. Mammals throughout the time of the dinosaurs were restricted to a narrow range of taxa, sizes, and shapes, but increased rapidly in size and diversity after extinction, with bats taking to the air by 13 million years, and cetaceans taking to the sea by 15 millions of years.

Flowering plants

See main article: Angiosperm

Gymnosperms

Gnetales

(gymnosperm)

Welwitschia

(gymnosperm)

Ephedra

(gymnosperm)

Bennettitales

Angiosperm

(flowering plants)

A possible family tree of flowering plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperm

(flowering plants)

Cycadales

(gymnosperm)

Bennettitales

Ginkgo

Gnetales

(gymnosperm)

Coniferophyta

(gymnosperm)

Another possible family tree

The first flowering plants appeared around 130 Ma. The 250,000 to 400,000 species of flowering plants outnumber all other land plants combined and are the dominant vegetation in most terrestrial ecosystems. There is fossil evidence that flowering plants diversified rapidly in the Early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 Ma, and that their rise was associated with that of pollinating insects. Among modern flowering plants, Magnolia is believed to be close to the group's common ancestor. However, paleontologists have not been able to identify the earliest stages in the evolution of flowering plants.

Social insects

See main article: Eusociality

These termite mounds survived a brush fire.

Social insects are notable because the vast majority of individuals in each colony are sterile. This seems contrary to basic concepts of evolution, such as natural selection and the selfish gene. In fact, there are very few eusocial insect species: only 15 of the approximately 2,600 living insect families contain eusocial species, and it appears that eusociality has evolved independently only 12 times among arthropods, although some eusocial lineages have diversified into several families. However, social insects have been spectacularly successful; for example, although ants and termites represent only about 2% of known insect species, they form more than 50% of the total mass of insects. His ability to control a territory seems to be the basis of his success.

The sacrifice of breeding opportunities by most individuals has long been explained as a consequence of the unusual haplodiploid method of sex determination in these species, which has the paradoxical consequence that two sterile worker daughters of the same queen share more genes with each other than with each other. their offspring if they could procreate. However, EO Wilson and Bert Halldobler argue that this explanation is flawed: for example, it is based on kin selection, but there is no evidence of nepotism in colonies that have multiple queens. Instead, they write, eusociality evolves only in species that are under heavy pressure from predators and competitors, but in environments where and it is possible to build "fortresses"; Once colonies have established this security, they gain other advantages through cooperative foraging. In support of this explanation, they cite the appearance of eusociality in batiergid mole rats, which are not haplodiploid.

The first insect fossils were found in Early Devonian rocks from around 400 Ma, which preserve only a few varieties of flightless insects. The Mazon Creek lagerstنtten from the Upper Carboniferous, about 300 Ma, include about 200 species, some gigantic by modern standards, and indicate that insects occupied their main modern ecological niches as herbivores, detritovores, and insectivores. Social termites and ants first appear in the Early Cretaceous, and advanced social bees were found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle Cenozoic.

Humans

See main article: Human evolution

The idea that, along with other life forms, modern humans evolved from an ancient common ancestor was proposed by Robert Chambers in 1844 and adopted by Charles Darwin in 1871. Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright walking apes that have been traced through 6 Ma to Sahelanthropus. The first known stone tools were made around 2.5 Ma, apparently by Australopithecus garhi, and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools. Early hominids had brains the size of chimpanzees, but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 million years; statistical analysis suggests that hominid brain size depends almost completely on the date of the fossils, while the species to which they were attributed has only a small influence. There is a long-running debate about whether modern humans evolved around the world simultaneously from existing advanced hominins or are descended from a single small population in Africa, which then migrated across the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced the earlier hominin species. . There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual, cultural, and technological "Great Leap Forward" less than 100,000 years ago, and if so, whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils.

Mass extinctions

See main article: Mass extinction

Intens. of marine extinction during the Phanerozoic

%

Millions of years ago

(H)

K–Pg

Tr–J

P–Tr

Cap

Superior D

YOU

The blue graph shows the apparent percentage (not the absolute number) of marine animal genera becoming extinct during a given time interval. It does not represent all marine species, only those that are readily fossilized. The labels of the "Big Fives" traditional extinctions and the more recently recognized Capitonian Extinction are clickable links; see mass extinction for more details. (source and image information)

Life on Earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions since at least 542 million years ago. Although they were disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth. When dominance of specific ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new.

The fossil record appears to show that the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing. Both phenomena can be explained in one or more ways:

The oceans may have become more hospitable to life in the last 500 million years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions: dissolved oxygen has spread and penetrated to greater depths; the development of life on land has reduced the runoff of nutrients, and therefore, the risk of eutrophication and anexic events; and marine ecosystems became more diverse, so food chains were less likely to be disrupted.

All genres

"Well-defined" genres

Tendency line

The "big five" mass extinctions

Other mass extinctions

Millions of years ago

Thousands of genres

Biodiversity in the Phanerozoic as shown by the fossil record.

Reasonably complete fossils are very rare, most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils, and complete fossils are rarer in the oldest rocks. Therefore, paleontologists mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera, which were often defined just to accommodate these discoveries—the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this. The risk of this error is greater for older fossils because they are often different parts of any living organism and poorly preserved. Many of the "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments that are not found again, and the "superfluous" genera seem to become extinct very quickly. Biodiversity in the fossil record, which is "... the number of distinct genera alive at a given time; that is, those whose first occurrence is before and whose last occurrence is after that time" shows a different trend: a rather rapid tendency to rise from 542 to 400 Ma; a slight decline from 400 to 200 Ma, in which the devastating Permian-Triassic extinction event is an important factor; and a rapid increase from 200 Ma to the present.

Future of Earth

Illustration of the sun, when it becomes a red giant, which will occur within billions of years. The Earth will be uninhabited then.

The future of planet Earth will be determined by several factors, including the increase in the Sun's luminosity, the loss of thermal energy by the planet's core, disturbances caused by other bodies in the Solar System and biochemical changes on the Earth's surface. The theory of orbital variation cycles, by Milutin Milankovitch, states that the planet is subject to glaciation cycles due to the eccentricity of its orbit, axial inclination and precession.

Prehistory

Prehistory corresponds to the period of history that precedes the invention of writing, from the beginning of recorded historical times until approximately 3,500 BC. It is studied by anthropology, archeology and paleontology.

It can also be contextualized for a specific people or nation as the period in its history about which there are no written documents. Thus, in Egypt, prehistory ended approximately 3,500 BC, although some Stone Age cultures coexisted with civilizations after that date and some ancient tribes still exist in remote locations.

The transition to "history proper" takes place through a period called protohistory, which is described in slightly later documents or in external documents. The term prehistory therefore shows the importance of writing for Western civilization.

Since there are no documents from this moment in human evolution, its study depends on the work of archaeologists, anthropologists, paleontology and genetics; or other scientific areas, which analyze human remains, signs of their presence and preserved utensils to try to trace, at least partially, their culture, customs and beliefs.

History of research into Prehistory

Charles Darwin caught the attention of scientists of his time when he stated that species evolved and that man and primates have a common ancestor.

In 1823, the first fossil of a modern human being was discovered; in 1829, of a Neanderthal man; and in 1848 and 1856, more Neanderthal fossils. In 1859, Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species. In 1863, Neanderthals were classified. In 1865, Gregor Mendel published the results of his genetic and non-genetic experiments.

Beginnings

There are certain doubts about exactly who our most remote ancestors were. Modern human beings only emerged c ago. 150 thousand years. Humans are primates and belong to the group of great apes, originally from Africa.

After the last common ancestors with the orangutan 15 or 14 million years ago (the time of the ancestors of all current great apes); with the gorilla there are 10-8 million; and with the chimpanzee, there are 7-5 million, the African continent undergoes a series of changes. At that time, the entire equatorial zone was covered in tropical jungle; and Africa 8 million years ago was wetter than today. But then several climate changes occurred, until 7 million years ago the tropical forest began to decline.

Between 7 and 6 million years ago, two species appeared in Africa that belonged to the beginnings of hominid evolution: Sahelanthropus tchadensis, with a mix of human and simian characteristics; and Orrorin tugenensis, already bipedal, but whose brain size is not known, which in Sahelanthropus was 320–380 cm3. The hominids of the time were found in Ethiopia and Tanzania, that is, in East Africa. These first hominids followed, the Ardipithecus, with Ardipithecus ramidus existing 5.5-4 million years ago; and later (4.1-1.3 million years ago) there lived the Australopithecus, descendants of the Ardipithecus.

Australopithecus

Australopithecines had larger brains, longer legs, smaller arms and facial features more similar to ours. These lived in groups made up of several dozen individuals, who lived in constant movement. The groups dispersed when drought arrived and food became scarce. Australopithecus probably had the concept of couples, but not of family.

The genus Homo

Skull of a Homo habilis.

Hل c. 2.5 million years ago, the genus Homo, Homo habilis, appears in eastern Africa, and begins to use tools stone ones completely made by them (characteristic of the Paleolithic) and meat becomes more important in their diet. They were hunters, but they were also scavengers and herbivores. And they had a larger brain (590–650 cm3) and long arms.

There were other species, such as Homo rudolfensis, which had a larger brain and was bipedal; and existed during the same time as Homo habilis. Hل c. 2 million years ago, strongly built Homo erectus emerged, with a much larger brain (810–1250 cm3) and a broad face; and was the first hominid to move out of Africa, heading north and east a century ago. 1.8 million years ago, also existing in Asia and Europe, until 500 thousand years ago. He is the first to use fire. 300 thousand years ago, there were already elaborate hunting strategies for large mammals.

The ice age began 1.5 million years ago and sea levels fell by 90 meters.

Departure from Africa

Human migrations across the globe

The numbers indicate the millennia before our era.

About 50 thousand years ago, human beings set out to conquer the planet in different directions from Africa. A course reached Australia. The other arrived in Asia, only to split into two: one in Europe; and the other walked until he crossed the Bering Strait and arrived in America. The last areas to be populated were the Polynesian islands, during the first millennium AD.

Neanderthals

See main article: Neanderthal man

Neanderthals were robust, with a large brain; and lived in Europe and western Asia. They survived until c. 24 thousand years and coexisted with modern Homo sapiens sapiens; and they could even mate with them, although their offspring ended up having fertility problems.

Origin of modern men

Cro-Magnon Man

The origin of modern-day Homo sapiens is hotly debated, but most scientists support the mitochondrial Eve theory, supported by genetic testing, rather than the multiregional evolution theory that argues that modern humans evolved all over the world at the same time. from existing Homo lل species; and that they reproduced among themselves during the various migrations they supposedly made. The first fully human fossils were found in Ethiopia; and it is estimated that they lived c. 160 thousand years.

The mitochondrial Eve theory considers that there was a second wave of Homo specimens, this time modern men, around 200 thousand years ago; and that all human beings descend from a very small group of women from this time.

75 thousand years ago, the human population stopped growing, most likely due to the Toba catastrophe, a volcanic explosion that, according to some scientists, dropped the population to 10 thousand.

Communication capacity

The origin of human speech has been very controversial. But although Homo habilis and Homo erectus already have some, there was an evolution possibly 250 thousand years ago, but the great leap forward only occurred here. 40 thousand years ago, when modern humans developed a language similar to ours.

Prehistoric art

Venus of Laussel: represents a naked woman, who holds a bison horn in her right hand.

Statuette carved from a block of hard limestone. Aquitaine Museum in Bordeaux

Around 35 thousand years ago, Paleolithic art emerged in Europe. Hل c. 25 thousand years BC, Venus figurines appeared. 21 thousand years ago, cave paintings in Altamira and Lascaux, plus small sculptures. The Venus of Willendorf is considered a symbol of fertility, is 11 cm tall and dates back to 24 thousand - 22 thousand years BC.

Despite the fact that religion was consolidated in the Neolithic period, archeology records that in the Paleolithic period there was a primitive religion based on the cult of a mother Goddess, the feminine and its association with the power to give life. Cowry shells were discovered in the Cro-Magnon rock shelter in Les Eyzies, described as "the portal through which a child comes into the world" and covered in a red ocher pigment, which symbolized blood, and which were closely linked to the ritual of worship of female figurines; Excavations showed that these figurines, the so-called Neolithic Venuses, were often found in a central position, as opposed to the male symbols located in peripheral positions or flanking the female figurines. Just like painting, Paleolithic sculptures had a utilitarian and ritualistic character.

Small objects and even musical instruments were found, such as flutes and drums made from bones. The oldest sculptures had a ritual function, had feminine forms and were believed to be an evocation of fertility. They became known as Steatopic Venuses and are small sculptures that have common characteristics in their shapes and volumes: rounded shapes; voluminous breasts; head without a face and covered with a kind of vast hair.

Mesolithic

Mesolithic (13000 BC to 9000 BC) is the term used to describe the period of prehistory that serves as a trans between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic; and present (or at least, with a reasonable duration) only in some regions of the world where there was no direct transition between these two periods. It means Middle Stone Age (from the Greek ىهَïٍ, mesos = medium; and ëكèïٍ, lيthos = stone) as opposed to the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age), identifying with the last hunting societies -collectors.

Invention of agriculture

Approximately in 10,000 BC, there was practically no agriculture, but in 6 thousand years the groups of humans with the capacity to raise animals and cultivate plants would become producers. Agriculture was invented in various parts of the world, usually at different times, independently of other areas. First it was in the Middle East, more precisely in the Fertile Crescent, in c. 10,000 BC, where it spread to various areas of the world, such as North Africa (excluding Egypt) and the Balkans in c. 6000 BC.

Discovery of metals

Around 6000 BC, copper smelting was invented. Metallurgy emerged in Anatolia and Mesopotamia (present-day Turkey and Iraq) in approximately 5,000 BC; and until 4,000 BC it spread to the Iranian plateau, Caucasus and Nile delta; until 3,000 BC it reached southern Europe, Poland and Germany, France and the British Isles; and then, until 2000 BC, to Denmark, the rest of Poland, part of the Baltic countries and Belarus.

Old age

Ancient Age or Antiquity, in the periodization of the historical epochs of humanity, is the period that extends from the invention of writing (from 4,000 BC to 3,500 BC) until the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD). Although the criterion of the invention of writing as a marker between the end of Prehistory and the beginning of History proper is the most common, scholars who place more emphasis on the importance of the material culture of societies have sought to rethink this division more recently. There is also no true consensus among historians about when the true end of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages occurred, as they consider that social and economic processes cannot be dated with the same precision as political facts.

It should also be taken into account that this periodization is related to the History of Europe and also the Near East as a precursor to the civilizations that developed in the Mediterranean, culminating in Rome. This vision was consolidated with the positivist historiography that emerged in the 19th century, which made the writing of history a science and an academic discipline. If we rethink the criteria that define what Antiquity is in the rest of the world, it is possible to think of other criteria and benchmark dates.

In the case of Europe and the Near East, several peoples developed in the Ancient Age. The Sumerians, in Mesopotamia, were the civilization that originated writing and urbanization, more or less at the same time that the Egyptian civilization emerged. After that, in the 1st millennium BC, the Persians were the first to form a large empire, which was later conquered by Alexander the Great. The classical civilizations of Greece and Rome are considered the greatest creators of current Western civilization. Also noteworthy are the Hebrews (first monotheistic civilization), the Phoenicians (lords of the sea and commerce and inventors of the alphabet), as well as the Celts, Etruscans and others. The study of history itself began in this period, with Herodotus and Thucydides, Greeks who began to question the myth, legend and fiction of historical fact, narrating the Medical Wars and the Peloponnesian War respectively.

In America, the Ancient Age can be considered the pre-Columbian era, where the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas emerged. However, some scholars consider that in other regions, such as what today constitutes most of Brazil's territory, a large part of the Amerindian peoples had not yet achieved a similar level of social complexity and the classification of Prehistory for these societies would be more correct. . In China, the Ancient Age ends around 200 BC, with the emergence of the Chin dynasty, while in Japan it is only from the end of the Heian period, in 1185 AD, that we can speak of the beginning of the Japanese "Middle Ages". Some religions that still exist in the modern world originated at that time, including Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism and Judaism.

Eastern antiquity

Egyptian Civilization

See main article: Ancient Egypt

Map of Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt (currently the Arab Republic of Egypt), crossed by the Nile River, with 6,500 km and 6 cataracts, bordered by two deserts (Lebian Desert and Arabian Desert), was located in northeast Africa. To the north, the Mediterranean Sea facilitated sea travel and commercial activity with other civilizations. To the east, the Red Sea was the second route of communication after the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River was the origin of life for the ancient Egyptians, who They were mainly dedicated to agriculture. Between June and September, during the flood season, intense rains overflowed the river; This flooded and covered the vast and extensive lands located on its banks. The soil was fertilized by the waters, because they carried lime and organic matter, the latter transformed into an excellent fertilizer. As well as fertilizers, the river had provided many fish and provided navigation for thousands of boats.

In the Egyptians' hypothesis, the Nile River was actually blessed by the gods. I mean, the same river was known as holy. However, Egypt was not exclusively this gift of the Nile. Experienced, hard-working, dedicated and organized men were needed. During the dry season, while cooperating to join forces, the Egyptians took advantage of the river's waters to irrigate even distant lands or build dikes to control floods.

After the floods, the waters receded, destroying the boundaries of the farms. Thus, with each passing year, working man's need for measurement and calculation developed geometry and mathematics. This frequent work and geographic unity favored a centralizing and single government.

Historical periods of Egypt

The Nile River valley was populated from the Paleolithic onwards. Over time, free and structured communities called nomos were born. The nomes were organized in both kingdoms (North and South) and in the year 3200 BC, Pharaoh Menes unified the total number of kingdoms into a single kingdom. With him, the great dynasties began (royal families ruling Egypt for more or less three thousand years).

The History of Egypt is usually divided into four major stages:

• Old Kingdom (between 3200 BC and 2200 BC)

• Middle Kingdom (between 2200 BC and 1750 BC)

• New Kingdom (between 1580 BC and 1085 BC)

• Low period (between 653 BC and 332 BC)

At the end of the Middle Kingdom, many Hebrews, who lost their freedom and finally gained it again to return to the homeland from which they came, immigrated peacefully to Egypt. After the Hebrews, Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, who settled there for 200 years. The war chariots, which the Egyptians did not know existed, were introduced by the Hyksos, expelled in 1580 BC, the starting point of the New Empire.

At the end of the New Empire, Egypt gradually weakened and declined, and this led to the oldest country in the world being invaded and dominated by a wide variety of civilizations, such as Persians, Greeks, Romans and Muslims. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United Kingdom politically conquered Egypt, which declared its independence as a constitutional monarchy in 1922, before the proclamation of the republic in 1953, as a contemporary nation with its own government.

Egyptian society

Egyptian society was divided into certain levels, each with its own very specific functions. In that society, women were very prestigious and authoritarian.

The pharaoh meant the very life that passed in Egypt. He was monarch and living god. Fruit of adoration, reverence. His right was to have a wide variety of wives, most of them being family members, so that royal blood in the family was guaranteed. However, only one used the title of queen and the heir was born to her.

At the highest point of the pyramid was the pharaoh, with no limits to his powers, because the pharaoh was seen as a holiness, divinity and accepted as a person who descended from god or as the true god. This is the system of government called theocracy, that is, the government in which God is regent.

The pharaoh was an all-powerful king and the entire country was his property. The fields, the deserts, the mines, the rivers, the canals, the men, the women, the cattle, and the animals in their entirety — they all belonged to the pharaoh. He was, at the same time, king, judge, priest, treasurer and general. He was the one who determined and commanded everything, however, as it was not possible for him to be present everywhere, he entrusted duties to more than a hundred employees who helped him administer Egypt. In the Egyptians' view, Pharaoh himself would survive and hope to be happy.

The priests were enormously prestigious and powerful, both spiritually and materially, because they controlled the wealth and assets of the vast and enriched temples. The Egyptians were also the ones who knew a lot and kept the scientific and religious mysteries that were related to their large number of gods.

The nobility was made up of people from the pharaoh's family, high-ranking officials and wealthy farmers.

The scribes, who came from wealthy and wealthy families, studied reading and writing and were dedicated to recording, documenting and accounting for documents and activities in Egyptian life.

Craftsmen and traders. The work of artisans was done only for kings, nobility and temples. They made beautiful pieces and adornment, utensils, figurines, funeral masks. The work of the artisans with wood, copper, bronze, iron, gold and ivory was excellent. Merchants were dedicated to trade under the responsibility of the kings or for their own benefit, acquiring, trading or exchanging products with other civilizations, such as Cretans, Phoenicians, people from Somalia, Nabia, etc. Commerce forced the construction of immense cargo boats.

Peasants constituted the majority of the population. The pharaoh organized and controlled agricultural work, because the land, in its entirety, belonged to the government. The floods of the Nile, the work of irrigating, sowing, harvesting and storing grain forced peasants to work hard and receive little money. In general, peasants were paid a small part of the produce they harvested and only enough to survive. They lived in precarious huts and wore very simplistic clothes. Peasant services were also provided on the lands of members of the nobility and in temples. Egypt's main economic activity was agriculture, due to the lack of land and lack of vegetation to raise more livestock. As the peasants were poor, they grew barley, wheat, lentils, fruit trees and vines. They made bread, beer and wine. Many fish were offered by the Nile.

Slaves were, for the most part, persecuted among those defeated in wars. They were severely forced to work as builders of the great pyramids, for example. The importance of some pharaohs

There were numerous pharaohs who ruled Egypt throughout its history. Certain ones achieved some prominence.

Menes (or Narmer), in 3000 BC, unified the northern and southern kingdoms into a single kingdom.

Djoser (Zozer), kingdom in which the first monumental stone building in the world appeared, the pyramid of Djoser, measured in steps. Cheops, Chephren and Mencherinos became known worldwide as the pharaohs who built the three largest pyramids in Egypt, on the Giza plain. Khafre's father was succeeded on his throne and also erected his pyramid at a certain distance in meters from his father's. After Khafre, Micahrine reigned, ordering his pyramid to be built close to the others, however, with a small difference in size. Amenphis IV, also called "priest of the Sun god", became known throughout the world as the pharaoh who united the Egyptian religion, forcing them to worship a single deity, the Sun, called Aton. His name was changed from Amen َ fis (whose meaning is "Amon has satisfaction") to Aquenaton (whose meaning is "he who serves Aten"). He was disliked by the priests and by the fanaticism of the people and, after the pharaoh died, he returned to the old cults. Tutankhamun, who belonged to the family of Akhenaten, took possession of the new kingdom while still in his prime at five years of age. His reign lasted a short time, due to his death at eighteen years of age. It became very famous in the 20th century, because in 1924, the British archaeologist Howard Carter found its very rich sarcophagus in the Valley of the Kings. The tomb, untouched, had not yet been violated by criminals and contained valuable wealth, because the raw materials for these objects were gold, silver and precious stones. There were extraordinarily rich objects such as death masks, sarcophagi, statues, furniture, jewelry, vases, hearses, among others. Through this discovery in archeology, it is possible to have an idea of ​​how grand, luxurious and rich the life of the pharaohs was, while the majority of the population, made up of peasants, lived extremely hard and ate less.

Egyptian religion and mythology

See main article: Egyptian mythology

The Egyptians were deeply religious. This was important because faith formed a civilized and organized society. They were polytheists (believed in a wide variety of gods). From the earliest times, the Egyptians worshiped a large number of strange gods. The oldest gods were animals and everyone was protected by animal gods. They worshiped cats, oxen, snakes, crocodiles, bulls, jackals, gazelles, beetles, etc.

Among the venerated animals, the best known was the ox ءpis which, during its death, caused sadness throughout Egypt and the priests searched the fields for a replacement that had the same physical similarity. They believed in the possible reincarnation of a god in an animal with its own life. The Nile River, with its daily floods, and the heated desert wind, which destroyed crops, were venerated as natural forces.

The Egyptians believed in reincarnation, which is why they worshiped people who died. Each location was protected by its gods, with different characteristics, some of which were half man and half animal (in general, human body and animal head — anthropomorphism).

Gods of Egypt

Rل, the Sun god.

Rل: the Sun god, who in union with that of us Ammon (Amon-Rل) was the most important Egyptian god.

Nut: is the firmament, symbolized by a female individual with lower limbs in the Eastern Hemisphere and hands in the Western Hemisphere. The celestial bodies ran along his body. Her son, R (the Sun), is swallowed by her during the night and is reborn every day.

Divine Baboon: the one who proved that the journey of the solar boat was true.

Ra's solar boat, which on a permanent journey, daily returns him to Earth and at night takes him back to eternal life.

ح sis: her husband is Os ي ris and her son was H َ rus. He protected plant life, water (the floods of the Nile) and seeds. The rains would mean the tears of ح sis seeking her husband, Os ي ris, who also represents the river Nile.

Nephthys: sister of Osيris, was married to Set.

Maat: protected justice, truth, and universal balance.

Horus: the falcon deity, whose parents were Osيris and حsis, also venerated as the rising of the Sun.

Osيris: in his habit in the form of a mummy, he protected the deceased, plant life, fertility. Also venerated as the sunset. He was the one who came to look for the souls of the dead so that they could be sentenced in his court (Court of Osيris).

Sacmis: divinity with a female body and a leonine head. He protected military conflicts and, because he was strong, he was responsible for killing Rل's enemies.

Ptل: protected Memphis, considered himself the Great Architect of the Universe, as members of Freemasonry would have said, and protected craft professionals.

Quenْbis: shepherd god, protected the sources and floods of the Nile. Anbis: jackal god, guarded the tombs, protected life after death, mediated between the firmament and our planet. Tote: protected knowledge, magical powers and created writing. He considered himself the divine scribe and protected the scribes. Hathor: female deity presented in both forms: as a female ox with horns and the Sun between them and as a woman with the Sun between her horns. She protected the vain, the musicians, the happy, the pleasurable and the passionate.

Seti: great enemy of Osيris (the Nile), considered the heated wind of the desert. Personification of evil, he caused lightning and thunder and protected firearms.

Ammon (from Thebes): divinity of the deities of Egyptian mythology, later venerated together with Ra, with the name Ammon-Rل.

Bes: monstrous and evil spirit (or demon), lived in hell.

Tuéris: female deity in the shape of a hippopotamus, protected mothers with babies in their belly.

Bastet: cat goddess, who passed on the desirable influences of the solar deity to people.

Egyptian temples

Luxor Temple.

Egyptian temples were not the same as today's churches. They were luxurious, of immense size, with a sumptuous gate and vast amplified courtyards. The gigantic columns supported the temples. At the bottom was the statue of the local divinity and on the sides were the other few gods. In front, the colossus of statues of the pharaohs who built the temples. Inside the temples, there lived the different priests, with their hair shaved and dressed in a single tunic. From Ancient Egypt, the ruins of two great temples remained, the temple of Luxor and the temple of Karnak.

Funeral ceremonies

Mummy inside the sarcophagus

As for mummies, the Egyptians believed that the human being was made up of Kل (the body) and Rل (the soul). In their opinion, when he died, the body (Kل) was left by the soul (Rل), but it was possible for the soul (Rل) to continue his life in the kingdom of Osيris or Amon-Rل. This could happen if the body that needed to support it was preserved. Hence the need for embalming or mummification of the body so that its decomposition was prevented. To ensure that the soul survived, in case of destruction of the mummy, statuettes of the person who died were placed in the tomb.

The tomb was where a dead person lived, just as the house is where a living person lives, with furniture and food provided. The paintings that appear on the walls represent scenes from the life of a dead man at the table, chasing animals and fishing. They believed in the magic of the powers of these paintings, because in their opinion, this represented the feeling of happiness and serenity of the soul during its contemplation in front of the images. The soul of the person who died was presented to the Court of Osيris, where he was sentenced for his works, to see if it was possible for him to be admitted into the kingdom of Osيris.

The tombs were homes for eternity. So that the bodies were better protected, the mummies were placed in hermetically covered sarcophagi. The pharaohs, the nobles, the rich and certain priests erected the immense tombs made of stones to ensure that the bodies were protected against thieves and desecrators. Sarcophagi were made to ensure that the dead waited a long time for their soul to return.

So, they built There are mastabas, pyramids and hypogeums with rich adornment.

Egyptian culture

During antiquity, Egyptian culture was the set of cultural manifestations developed in Ancient Egypt. Not to mention the pyramids, mastabas, hypogeums and vast temples, the art of Ancient Egypt was also manifested in the palaces, in the luxurious columns and obelisks, in the sphinxes, in the statuary and in the decorative art in bas-relief. Listed below:

• Mastabas: Mastabas were tombs covered with rock slabs or made of special brick. They had a chapel, a burial chamber and other compartments. Hypogeus: Excavation of tombs in the rocks, near the Nile thalweg. The best-known hypogeum was that of Tutankhamun, which is located in the Valley of the Kings.

• Sphinx: Sphinxes guarded the temples and pyramids. The sphinx in front of Khafre's pyramid has a human head and a leonine body. His famous phrase is "Decipher me or I will devour you".

• Obelisk: Monument whose raw material is a single needle-shaped stone to mark a certain fact or achievement. It also means a ray of the sun god.

Pyramids

In the royal pyramids, there were secret corridors, galleries, chambers, false doors and passages to deceive thieves, crypt, ventilation corridors and the king's chamber

In ancient Egypt, more than a hundred pyramids were built. The three big ones are included among the Seven Wonders of the ancient World. To this day, the pyramids hold certain secrets for the human mind. Thus, modern engineering has not yet been able to clarify how, at that time, it was possible to transport rock blocks weighing 2 to 10 or more tons that came from far away to the desert where the pyramids are found. Even more complicated is clarifying how they managed to carry stones on top of stones to a height of 146 meters (the height of the great pyramid of Cheops). Another secret is to clarify the reason for the construction of the pyramids with their sides facing the four cardinal points. Currently, many people around the world believe in a mysterious power of energetic concentration and preservation within the pyramids. That way, they wouldn't have damaged the perishable things that were placed inside, in the position that the king's chamber occupies.

To do this, with the help of a compass, you need to orient the pyramidal bases in the direction of the four cardinal points. It is also believed in healing or improving health through the use of a copper pyramid in good condition so that a human being could be housed inside it.

Egyptian sciences

It is no surprise that the seven wonders of the ancient world are in Egypt, which bequeathed great knowledge to humanity. The Egyptians had developed architecture, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and engineering, in addition to the year divided into 365 days, 12 months with 30 days. They used solar, star and water-based clocks to measure time.

In mathematics, the Egyptians had developed geometry, because it was necessary to measure rural lands and survey vast constructions. In medicine, they had doctors who were knowledgeable about a wide variety of diseases, in addition to working as surgeons, even using anesthetics. However, Egyptian medicine was more esoteric than scientific, as it was accompanied by magic and supplicated the gods.

They specialized in mummifying bodies using embalming resources, which have preserved numerous bodies to this day. According to Herodotus, a very famous Greek historian, the process of mummifying the body was carried out in the following way:

“ "They first remove his brain, with a curved iron, which they insert into his nostrils and with the help of drugs, which they inject into his head. They then make an incision in his belly, with a cutting stone from Ethiopia. They remove his intestines through this opening. , which are washed, passed through palm wine and aromatics, then fill the belly with myrrh (resin from a tree used as incense or perfume), cinnamon and other perfumes, then carefully sew it up. After this, they salt the body. and cover him with natron (natural sodium carbonate) for seventy days. After this period, they wash the body and wrap it entirely in linen strips." ”

Then the body was placed in the sarcophagus. The poor had easier mummification processes.

Egyptian language and literatures

Hieroglyphs on a funerary stele.

The Egyptians were one of the first people to use writing in the world. They had developed three alphabets:

• The hieroglyphic alphabet that is considered religious; The hierarchical alphabet, easier, used by nobles and members of the priesthood; The demotic alphabet was a type of writing used by the majority of the population. At the time of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, the French archaeologist Jean François Champollion took to France, in 1799, a stone from the city of Rosetta, which includes writing in three types of alphabet: hieroglyphs, Greek and demtic. In 1822, Champollio n, relating the text in classical Greek with the same theme in hieroglyphs, he managed to decode the Egyptian alphabet, contributing to the studies of Egyptian civilization.

The Egyptians wrote especially on a plant called papyrus, often found on the banks of the Nile. The papyrus core was cut, the parts were connected and pressed together, forming rolls that were even imported by neighboring peoples. Several written books were left by the Egyptians, most of them on subjects related to religion, such as the well-known Book of the Dead.[5]

Egyptian music

From the documents found, such as fragmented music and instruments, musical art began in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. In fact, in 1950 archaeologists had found a song of Assyrian origin dating back to 4000 BC, inscribed on a tablet made of clay.

The Egyptians used music a lot in any religious or social occasions, such as weddings, parties, war songs, songs of victory, or to express sad and mournful feelings. Musical instruments include the lyre, harp, oboe, cymbal, harp and others with a sounding board. It was common for wealthy women to sing very well. Along with music, dance and choreography were developed. The Mesopotamians and Egyptians managed to write music using signs.

Influence of Egyptian civilization on other civilizations

The Egyptians influenced the progress of a wide variety of neighboring and distant peoples. Several scholars from other ancient peoples sought their knowledge in Egypt, where they trained. They created geometry, which the Greeks and other peoples would later begin to follow.

The Egyptians influenced almost all medicine. In fact, they surpassed all ancient people in medical knowledge.

As far as religion is concerned, its gods and beliefs spread far and wide. The world was impressed by the pyramids and the Egyptians believed that the soul was immortal, considering this a spiritual advancement.

Regarding writing, they were pioneers in the art of writing, and their characters went to Phoenicia, where they were simplified, resulting in the alphabet that we have today. A great contribution to ancient civilizations was the papyrus provided by Egypt to the entire ancient world so that their books could be written, their libraries formed and material provided for their wise men to study.

Mesopotamian Civilization

See main article: Mesopotamia

General map of Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia, an enriched region of Asia Minor, is located on the fertility of the plains drained by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which empty their waters into the Persian Gulf. Mesopotamia is largely equivalent to the territory of modern-day Iraq.

The term Mesopotamia etymologically comes from the classical Greek: mesos = middle and potamos = river and has the meaning "land that is located between rivers", that is, in this case, a region that comprises the hydrographic basin of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. But, as seen on the map, Mesopotamia was very extensive beyond these rivers.

Mesopotamian venerator from 2750-2600 BC

There were several people who, through struggles, successively took possession of this fertile region of the Middle East (Asia Minor). Among them, the Sumerians, the Elamites, the Hittites, the Akkadians, the Amorites, the Kassites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Chaldeans, among others, can be mentioned.

The origin of the Sumerians is unknown, but it is known that, around 3000 BC, they were established in the southern part of Mesopotamia, close to the Middle East.[6]

Mesopotamian politics

Several communities, which gradually became city-states, were created by the Sumerians. Thus, the cities of Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur appeared. The main one was Ur.

The region of Sumerian occupation did not have a central power through which political unity was given to it. The entire city was like a country, with its own government. A civilian (patesi) and a priest ruled a city-state. These cities fought constantly and it was King Sargon I who managed to unify all of this, creating the kingdom of Sumer, spread between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean Sea.

After Sargon I died, the kingdom declined and was invaded by other people.

Babylonians

An inscription from the Code of Hammurabi.

Led by Hammurbi, they took possession of Sumer and created the great Babylonian Empire, around 1700 BC. The first known code of laws was drawn up by Hammurbi. The content of laws establishes the rights and duties of the people and authorities. But depending on social class, people were not similar before the law in the Babylonian Empire. For example, slaves were not considered as people, but rather as objects, a mere piece of property. That is, slavery was permitted by ancient civilizations and prisoners of war were taken advantage of, who did not want to die, as slaves for forced labor. The law of talion comes from Hammurbi: “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”. Another law determined that, if a man entered an orchard and stole, he must have paid the orchard owner a certain amount in silver.

The Babylonian Empire declined and was dominated by the Assyrians, a very militarily organized warrior people and the first to use war chariots. The Assyrians, characterized by cruelty and violence, dominated several peoples and conquered the region for 500 years.

Then, in 612 BC, the Babylonian Empire was restructured and reached its peak with Nebuchadnezzar II, who improved the city, built the well-known Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, and ordered the construction of an immense ziggurat, called the Tower of Babel by the Bible. In fact, in 1899, when it was excavated, a very large ziggurat was discovered which was thought to be the Tower of Babel. It had a base of 90 meters and another height, with the top covered in gold and tiles painted blue.

Cuneiform writing

Cuneiform writing with engraving on a sculpture made during the 22nd century BC (Louvre Museum, Paris). Written language results from the fact that man needs the guarantee to communicate and develop technique.

Texts were written by the Sumerians and Babylonians on clay tablets. They were the inventors of a type of wedge-shaped writing, which for this reason was called cuneiform writing. These clay tablets weighed a lot and were not easy to handle, but they had the advantage of lasting centuries or millennia with intelligible writing. Modern-day researchers have found many of them and have thus been able to discover a large number of things from the first civilization in the history of humanity. In the city of Nineveh, King Ashurbanipal founded a library, with 22,000 clay tablets with writings on a wide variety of subjects. Among other topics, the tablets show us what commerce and business were like at that time. For example, a list of medications prescribed to patients is made by the doctor. 3,000 years ago, a boy's duties at school were reported on one of the most interesting tablets: the boy needed to go faster to avoid being late for school, otherwise the child would be beaten by the teacher. The teacher also used the stick or paddle to punish students who talked, left school without authorization or studied without doing as well as they should.

Mesopotamian religion

Both the Sumerians and the Babylonians were polytheists, that is, they believed in a wide variety of gods. The entire city had its protective god. Babylon, for example, was being protected by Marduk. They also believed in the forces of the stars and nature and worshiped the sky (Anu), the Earth (Enlil), the Moon (Sin), lightning and storm (Hadad), fire (Gibil), etc.

Religion was worshiped in temples, called ziggurats, constructions with steps in the shape of a pyramid. The Mesopotamians believed that the stars influenced man's life, thus giving rise to astrology. The diviners and priests who studied the stars were very prestigious. The people of Mesopotamia contributed greatly to the knowledge of the stars, and through this knowledge they were even able to predict the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Contributions of the Sumerians and Babylonians

Goddess Ishtar, representative figurine from the 4th century BC.

The legacy left by the Sumerians and Babylonians to future people was very important. Among other collaborations, the following can be highlighted:

• They had politically and socially organized the city-states;

• They had created a code of rights and duties;

• They had organized food production: already at that time, they used plows and irrigation machines, for example;

• They had built beautiful temples and grand palaces;

• The Sumerians had invented writing, which made it possible to establish the knowledge of the time;

• They had invented the wheel and horse-drawn carriages;

• They had created astronomy (research into the stars);

• Astrology, that is, the science that researches the stars that influence people's future.

Ancient people did not believe that the soul was immortal, they were religiously pessimistic and lived without worrying about death or what people saw of themselves after they died. They sought protection against evil forces by using amulets and using all kinds of magic.

One of the most worshiped deities was the goddess Ishtar, personification of the planet Venus. She protected love and war.

Hebrew Civilization

See main article: History of Israel and Ancient Hebrew civilization

Abraham and the three Angels at the doors of purgatory according to a description by Dante Alighieri in 1250. Engraving by Gustave Doré (1832-1883).

The oldest origins of the Hebrews (or Israelites) are not yet known. The Bible is always the most important source for studying these people. The origins began with Abraham, leader of a tribe of semi-nomadic shepherds who, receiving God's advice, left the city of Ur in Mesopotamia, near the banks of the Euphrates River, went to Haran and then settled in the land of Canaم, in the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea (today Israel). The nature of this migration was religious and lasted a long time until Abraham's arrival in the land that God promised.

Abraham, in contrast to other men of the time, believed in a single God, who created the world, who could not be seen and who ordered him to leave for Canaم. Rewarded for obeying this and for believing, a promise from God was received by him: his family would originate a people who would be destined to have the land of Canaم, in which, according to the Bible, milk and honey grew. This promise was renewed to Isaac, of whom Abraham was the father, and later to Jacob (of whom Abraham was the grandfather), who received the name Israel from an angel, meaning “the strong one of God”. However, Canaم was definitively conquered, in the 13th century BC, during the departure of Moses from Egypt and the conduct of all the Hebrews to the Promised Land, in 1250 BC.

The patriarchs

The first three leaders of the Israelites are called patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The first spent his life in Ur, in Mesopotamia. Abraham is ordered by God to leave for Canaم and is promised by him that his family will have an excellent future. Abraham travels and settles in the land of Canaم with his family. After he died, he is succeeded by Isaac, of whom Abraham is the father. Afterwards, he is followed by Jacob, of whom Isaac is the father. Jacob is the father of twelve sons, who will give rise to the twelve tribes of Israel. José, the youngest of them, is his parents' favorite. He is envied by his brothers to such an extent that he is sold as a slave to Egyptian traders, whether they are born in the country or immigrants. In Egypt, Joseph worked in Pharaoh's court. After a great deal of adventures he is appointed Prime Minister. At that time, many Israelites were left with nothing to eat and Joseph managed to establish his family in Egypt.

moisés

Moses with the Tablets of the Law, by Rembrandt.

Life for the Hebrews in Egypt was peaceful for many generations. However, a pharaoh became restless because the population grew and his country became powerful. He decides to turn them into slaves and orders the killing of all boys born recently. Now, at that time, the boy Moses appears in a family of Hebrews. To be saved, he is placed by his mother in a small basket made of papyrus and is hidden among the reeds of the Nile River. The pharaoh's daughter takes the baby in and educates him at court. Reaching adulthood, Moses rebels because his people are miserable and takes refuge in the Sinai desert. There, God is revealed to him and promises him two things: to free the Israelites from slavery and to be given the country of Canaم. Since then, Moses' extraordinary mission has been that the Israelite people will be guided to the Promised Land and God's message included in the ten commandments will be transmitted to men by him.

Moses then returned to Egypt, together with Pharaoh, and asked him to allow the Hebrews to leave to his land, because God ordered it. Knowing that the Pharaoh refused, Egypt is punished by God with ten terrible plagues, told in the Bible. Finally, the Pharaoh resigns and the Israelites are freed: it is the Exodus, that is, the historical moment in which the Hebrews left Egypt.

The Hebrews were led by Moses through the Sinai desert. Once again, God is revealed to him, he will be given the Tablets of the Law, with the ten commandments and a covenant, a pact is made by Moses with the Israelites. These are protected by him until they enter the land of Canaم, however, in return, his people will be required to obey his laws absolutely. Without a doubt, the laws governing the lives of the people of Israel were spoken by God to Moses. The first 10 are of particular importance: they are the Ten Commandments of the Law of God.

Conquest of Canaم

After the departure of the people of Israel from Egypt, the Red Sea was crossed by the Israelites who wandered through the desert for 40 years, finally reaching the borders of the Promised Land (currently the State of Israel). Moses dies, Joshua succeeds him, declares a holy war against the Canaanites and wins. The country of the Canaanites is then transformed into the country of Israel. God fulfilled what he promised.

Judges

Once they established themselves in the land of Canaم, an authority was needed to lead the Hebrews in battles against their enemies and guide the activities of the people. They were the judges, and among them Joshua, Samson, Gideon and Samuel stood out. After the judges, the kingdom of Israel was founded, and the king began to command the country.

Monarchs

David represented by Michelangelo.

David and Solomon were the most victorious kings in the history of Israel. David finished conquering the land of Canaم and created the kingdom of Israel ael. He sent the Philistines away and chose Jerusalem as his capital. David was a king who wrote poetry and his several biblical psalms were written.

At the time of Solomon's reign, Israel developed greatly. He ordered the construction of palaces, fortifications and the Temple of Jerusalem. Inside the temple, the Ark of the Covenant was located, containing the Tablets of the Law, on which the Ten Commandments were written, which God dictated to Moses on Mount Sinai, during the arrival of the Hebrew people from Egypt to Canaم.

Most of the material used in construction was imported from Tire, Phoenicia. Imports of wood (especially Lebanon cedar), gold, silver and bronze were so exaggerated that the country became impoverished. The money received was too little for the debts to be paid. In order for the court's expenses and luxury to be sustained, taxes were increased by Solomon, who made it mandatory for the impoverished population to work on public works. Furthermore, every three months 30,000 Hebrews were rotated to work in the mines and forests of Phenicia to extract wood, as a way of paying off Israel's external debt with Phenicia.

Solomon's administration was a source of discontent among the people, however, he was historically considered as a king who built a lot and, especially, as a king of much knowledge.

Foreign invasions

The other peoples took over Israel on a wide variety of occasions. After the division of Israel into two opposing states — Israel in the northern part and Judah in the southern part, the Assyrians and Babylonians imprisoned the Hebrews. Then, among the other dominant peoples, the Persians and Romans took over Israel. Around 70 BC, the city of Jerusalem was destroyed by the Roman emperor Titus. The Jews, since then, were spread throughout the world (it was called the Diaspora) and the reunion in today's territory was only achieved in 1948, when the State of Israel was founded.

Jewish religion

Other peoples conquered the Israelites, who were greatly weakened under military ethics, and even took them as slaves to Babylon (the Babylonian captivity). But the Hebrews overcame numerous difficulties over the centuries, and once they united around their religious teachings, they are still one people today.

A very essential role in the religious and moralistic part was played by the Jews, who greatly influenced the entire West, from Europe to the Americas.

They were practitioners of monotheism and believed in Yahweh, God who created everything, universal, who cannot be seen, an all-powerful spirit, who could not be represented through statues or images. The Hebrews had to worship him "in spirit and truth." The priests were also called Levites, as they belonged to the tribe of Levi, one of the twelve Israelite tribes.

In the 1000 years before Jesus Christ was born, the Hebrew people wrote their history, their laws and their beliefs. These accounts, in total, are found in the initial part of the Bible, called the Old Testament, which is the part that the Hebrew people follow. The Bible is a religious book of Judaism as well as Christianity.

The people who destroyed the monumental Temple of Jerusalem were the Romans, in the year 70. Currently, the remaining part was only a wall that served to surround the temple. On this wall, the Hebrews still mourn the destroyed temple and its people who scattered throughout the world. This wall is called the Western Wall.

As for festivals and holy days, the Jews dedicate Saturday to the practice of religion. Any work that can only be carried out in six working days is prohibited. Jews set aside Saturday, strictly speaking, to meet family members, pray and study the Old Testament (religious services were also held in the synagogue).

Among other things I want to talk simply about a notion in life that perhaps we can understand its particularities that will involve us with all the atmospheres that in law apply various questions that we suppose to say that the world could have come from a vibrational set of certain ideas that are extinguishes in various ways and formations that puts and dazzles us under a great question of appreciating time and its modalities that supposedly we can be living here today a great constitutional variety of certain habits and fundamental concepts that were formalized from the beginning of the world until the These days when we see human beings go through and behave in different ways that we can now understand where it all started and I want to talk here about several religions that in my opinion have taken on various issues for the maturation of human beings in life regarding various distortions that prevent us from surviving and conquering human life better and I want to thank you for this formidable work that I did so that everyone can have an idea of ​​time and conquer life simply better.

I want to thank everyone for this great intro of mine that I show here for everyone to see the whole story of life and the world that completes us with a great variety of well-narrated and explained life and thank you all very much and I want to say that this work I did to the Edu academy for great history researchers in which we can show all the relativity of man with history and how it all began and here I leave my thanks as a writer and historian and thank you all very much!

SCIENCE

Olinda April 11, 2023

I come to show here with a lot of love and work this newspaper that I created as perhaps a more than complete and unprecedented proof that I philosophically unveil everything that is about the old news that makes us highlight a mere reasoning about social life and the people that we can here now we are aware of a notion that is born in the maturation of the people that develops and creates itself in the expression of life, more love for art and knowledge for the science of life, a metaphysics that makes us seek, above the flower of youth, more abundance for a sovereignty in which we can see and that stands out the role of man and woman who struggle unforgettably with life and death over a cherished time in which we designate all their love and culture in here there is employment with a lot of love and work over a great purpose and recognition with life in which we can believe in the new essence of life and its fractions that in the future we can unveil and believe in the existence of a new world where we can enjoy all the clairvoyance that makes human beings develop and grow in the environment and flourish together with life with a discipline that makes the human being react to all the effects and causes that are created in life and we can believe in the great existence of life in which the world was created and man developed, giving space and time over the tones that can relatively control and make all things emerge from the silence of life over all the resonances that emerge from all maturation and development of

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life on the human being and its probabilities that makes man in his triceps aspect recognize and develop atomically over all circumstances in physics that chemically governs the spirit together with the soul like subtle electricity giving rise to the body as the atomic nucleus over the forces of electrons, protons and neutrons in which we can in biology on the study of cells know about the human organism and its probabilities that we can see and distinguish the study of life and its developments both physical and chemical in relation to life and being human that we can create something substantial and carry out great research on life.

Perhaps science can deepen its relationship with life to a point where we can believe in the development of man over space and the sea that reveals a rare discovery about cells and the body as a scientific effect of seeing the life of human beings scientifically about space as perhaps a secondary effect of developing behind great chemical research that we delve into various chemical and organic functions that we can develop on the biological and physical study the stimulation of cells on each chemical function on metabolism as a great developer energy of certain particles that develop in the organism giving us more life and health over a metamorphosis that we may not be able to see because they are some hidden aspects that developed as a plenitude relative to the state of nuclear life that is characterized in nuclear chemistry over the exits and electro functions that primarily in physics between an atomic and nuclear combination of the spirit on the functions

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chemistry of the organism so that we can understand its metabolic processes about the chemical electricity about the nucleus which is composed of three atomic elements in the least fraction of an element that we call atomic.

Here is a great scientific study on the great development of cells on the atom which is formed of three fundamental atomic elements called protons, neutrons and electrons in which we vivify each atomic element on the chemical force of the spirit and on the atomic nucleus which is the body.

Here in my newspaper I want to thank everyone with lots of love and work and say that I am deeply happy to show this great discovery that will help many science researchers to develop great research and I want to say that I am happy and thank you very much.

TECHNOLOGIES

Olinda April 11, 2023

I come to show here with a lot of love and work this newspaper that I created as perhaps a more than complete and unprecedented proof that I philosophically unveil everything that is about the old news that makes us highlight a mere reasoning about social life and the people that we can here now we are aware of a notion that is born in the maturation of the people that develops and creates itself in the expression of the most love for art and knowledge of the science of life, a metaphysics that makes us seek more abundance from the flower of youth for a sovereignty in which we can see and which highlights the role of man and woman who struggle unforgettably with life and death about a cherished time in which we designate all your love and culture in here there is employment with a lot of love and work about a great purpose and recognition with life in which we can believe in the new essence of life and its fractions that in the future we can unravel and believe in the existence of a new world where we can enjoy all the clairvoyance that makes human beings develop and grow in the environment and flourish together with life with a discipline that makes human beings react to all the effects and causes that are created in life and we can believe in the great existence of life in which the world was made and man developed, giving space and time over the tones that he can relatively control and make all things emerge from the silence of life over all resonances

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that is detached from all the maturation and development of life on the human being and its probabilities that makes man in his triceps aspect recognize himself and develop atomically under all circumstances in physics that chemically governs the spirit together with the soul like subtle electricity giving rise to the body as the atomic nucleus on the forces of electrons, protons and neutrons in which we can in biology on the study of cells know about the human organism and its probabilities that we can see and distinguish the study of life and its developments, both physical and chemicals in relation to life and human beings so that we can create something substantial and carry out great research on life.

Here in this context I want to talk relatively about the great development of technology as a great advance in science that we will tell you here with a lot of knowledge about the great advance in technology that was when man was opening doors and discovering great entrances to knowledge that we see several creations throughout the world of various sciences that contributed to various projections in the life of human beings, as here we will talk and show, great scientists from large and various countries began with their crazy inventions and creations that made various electronic and electrical machines and other inventions that in theory I think man has memorized with God about a fearless optimism in creating great studies on different sciences that are portrayed today as true golds of the past that are an example of various achievements and that were kept as great memories and that man can marvel at his deep and realized dreams that qualified true creations in life and that we can

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understand the history of creation in which God created the world in a fraction of time in which all things in life could complete us, in a relativity of construction in which man was made out of perhaps an amazement at the full nature of life that completed us with its four constructive elements in which we see everything today is more logical than we resemble in biology that studies the human body and its relationships with life, making perhaps the greatest scientists to show through the human machine the functions and constructions of a machine that can lead us to a great creation of various elements that we can classify on pulse measurements and functions by mechanics and electronics that many may have been based on human matter and we total several creations on various studies and research that takes us back to the time when man was also studying the time machine concerned with the present, past and future that built several inventions to know about time travel that was kept as a scientific dream based on science fiction and we will talk a little about the alchemists who soon studied the elixir of long life and the philosopher's stone in middle ages in which alchemy was a great development until today for true chemistry that did and does several laboratory functions and which is a true advance for the new science and here I tell about the great advancement of technology in which man becomes a god of itself for so many imaginations and creations that built changed the lives of human beings, knowing and conquering life on the earth in which science gained space and developed among the people and also made man know the great space that he a long period of time and studies knew the moon and space that contributed to the great advancement of new science in which we can observe for a long period of

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time the great imaginations of ancient times that it is said that in this world, before human beings existed, many ancient civilizations lived with very deep knowledge that left many very ancient markings on the earth and on stones with drawings of people and animals that tell ine forgettably the story of a very ancient civilization that created several creations that developed the world and that at that time no one knows how these space beings had imaginable thoughts and elements that archaeologists and scientists are still thinking about their descriptions that were recorded on the planet of a great generation like the Incas, Aztecs and Mayans who perhaps had come from space to earth and would be gods and astronauts who dominated the world for millions of years until the arrival of prehistory when the first homo sapé man appeared and the world became begins with survival over life until the ancient age that the Egyptians were formed in Egypt with a very vast knowledge between high magic and astronomy that developed and created several creations that count several creations that tell several mysteries that came from the heaven over the earth to dominate the world on a great science that today we portray ourselves as a great advance of an ancient science such as the writing of hieroglyphs and the high magic that expanded throughout Egypt and the world was improving in terms of architecture, philosophy, psychology, art, agriculture and education that tells the story of great civilizations such as Rome and others in which man can today show his role on technology that showed us great scientific developments on the life of man who dreamed and fantasized several dilemmas to show and prove to the world its existence and great creations about life in which we can today understand its best role in life in the world

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knowledge and development of planet earth and we can admit him as almost a god of all things and that science has no limits and that the fruit of wisdom can tell us today and show the great substantial value of old and new science.

Here I want to thank all the great scientists who gave the best of their love and work and dedicate this newspaper to all the scientists in the world and here I will show some of them and their crazy creations and inventions and keep my best love and hugs.

Here in my newspaper I want to thank everyone with lots of love and work and say that I am deeply happy to show this great discovery that will help many science researchers to develop great research and I want to say that I am happy and thank you very much.

12 GREAT SCIENTISTS IN HISTORY AND THEIR SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES

The world's greatest and most famous scientists have created theories and objects that allow us to live as we do today. The discoveries of great scientists and their exaggerated passion for knowledge allowed the development and evolution of science.

But who were these people? How did it happen and what were your biggest discoveries? That's what we're going to tell you in this article, which tells the story of the most famous scientists of all time and their inventions.

1. Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)

albert einstein

Everyone has heard of the German physicist and mathematician Albert Einstein. His name is synonymous with genius and to this day he is considered one of the greatest scientists in the world.

He was not an ordinary boy: he only learned to speak at the age of four and was considered a bad student by his teachers because he had difficulty formulating sentences and was not good at

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pay attention in class (in fact, Einstein was bored with the content).

At the age of twenty-six he published one of his greatest discoveries, the Theory of Special Relativity. The revolution in the world of science at the time (1925) was so great that the year became known as The Miraculous Year.

In addition to explaining how space and time are related and how they are relative (contrary to Galileo's idea that they were absolute), Einstein also proved the existence of the atom and created the law of the photoelectric effect, for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1921.

Read more about Einstein in his full biography.

2. Marie Curie (1867 - 1934)

Marie Curie

Have you ever noticed that in practically every list of the most famous scientists in the world, Marie Curie appears as one of the only women? This is because her contribution to the world of physics was so important that she managed to bypass the male figures of the time and went on to receive the Nobel Prize twice, being the first person to achieve such a feat.

Born Marya Sklodowska Curie in Poland, the daughter of a physics and mathematics teacher and a pianist, Marie took on the role of

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French spelling of her name when she managed to move to Paris, after graduating in medicine (from an underground Polish university that accepted women) to study at the famous Sorbonne.

When she was twenty-eight years old she met Pierre Curie, who worked in electrical and magnetic research, and it was with him that she won her first Nobel Prize, for the discovery of two chemical elements: polonium and radium.

After the death of her husband, tragically killed in a car accident, Marie gained the attention of the scientific community. In 1911, at the age of forty-four, she won the her second Nobel Prize for studies related to radioactivity (until then no one had used this term), she was appointed director of the Paris Radium Institute and founded the Curie Institute. She was also the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne.

Find out more about the scientist's career in her complete biography.

3. Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882)

Charles Darwin

The English naturalist who founded modern biology was born in England and was the son of a doctor, and was interested in the field of Natural Sciences from an early age.

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He abandoned medical school to become a pastor and, after twenty-two years of age, embarked on an expedition traveling for five years on a ship where he continued his studies in the branches of natural history and began to write the Theory of Evolution , which he would only publish when he was fifty years old.

On the Origin of Species was published in 1859 and stated that animals evolved through selection in nature. Whoever was stronger and could adapt, stayed alive and progressed. The book was sold out in one day and created a stir in the scientific community at the time.

In fragile health, Darwin almost never left home and spent a lot of time dedicated to his studies, having published nine other books on the subject of evolution. Today he is seen as one of the most influential scientists in the world, influencing all of biology with his evolutionary theories.

Find out more about Darwin and his career through the complete biography.

4. Stephen Hawking (1942 - 2018)

Stephen Hawking

Modern physics would not be the same without the charisma and intelligence of Stephen William Hawking, an English scientist who became a celebrity of the 20th and 21st centuries.

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Son of a doctor father and a philosopher mother, Hawking was a child prodigy who even as a child built his own toys. He never liked mathematics, because it was too easy. His interest in physics and astronomy led him to study physics at Oxford University at just seventeen years of age.

Despite being diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) at the age of twenty-one and knowing that his movements would be lost over time, Stephen continued his studies and developed some of the most important theories in modern physics.

Among his most ingenious discoveries is the singularity theorem, which explains how the phenomena of black holes gave rise to the world as we know it, including us, human beings. His simple and uncomplicated way of communicating (even speaking only through a computer) and friendliness won millions of fans around the world, making him the most popular and important modern scientist in the world.

Want to know more about Hawking's career? Access your full biography.

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5. Max Planck (1858 - 1947)

max Planck

Born in Germany into a family of judges, scientists and theologians, Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck was a boy talented in music and physics, having received the title of doctor in philosophy at just twenty-one years of age.

Working as a professor at several German universities throughout his life, Max continued his studies on electromagnetic radiation, and that was how he evolved into his theory that energy was produced in packages (called quanta), which was how Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr, ten years later, were able to originate quantum theory.

For the birth of quantum physics, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. One of the interesting facts about his life is that the scientist tried to convince Hitler to give freedom to the Jews, without success. One of his sons was even executed, accused of trying to assassinate the Nazi leader.

Learn more about Planck through his full biography.

6. Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727)

isaac newton

Born in England and raised by his grandparents, Sir Isaac Newton also carried out experiments as a child.

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After graduating in arts from Cambridge University, he was encouraged by a teacher to develop his mathematical skills and at just twenty-four he was already teaching at the university where he graduated.

His discoveries and scientific revolutions were so many that it is difficult to name the most important ones, but we cannot fail to mention the laws of mechanics, the theory of universal gravitation, the composition of light, the construction of the first telescope, the laws of motion (known as Newton's Three Laws), among others.

His passion for knowledge and science earns him his place among the greatest thinkers of all time, the father of modern science.

Want to know more about Newton? Read his full biography here.

7. Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895)

louis pasteur

If today it is possible to combat some bacterial infections with certain ease, this is thanks to the French scientist, chemist and bacteriologist Louis Pasteur.

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Despite having graduated in Literature, Pasteur discovered a passion in science, chemistry and especially biology, and helped save millions of lives with his ideas.

Pasteur proved that germs give rise most infectious diseases, that asepsis and sterilization were fundamental to prevent the spread of diseases and he also created the vaccine against rabies and the theory of biogenesis, his most famous idea, which proved that microorganisms in the air infected materials. Many things have changed in biology and to this day the pasteurization method is used to prevent infection by microorganisms/bacteria in food.

Want to know more about Pasteur? It's all there in his full biography.

8. Thomas Edison (1847 - 1931)

thomas edison

If today the symbol of new ideas and creativity is a light bulb, it is thanks to Thomas Alva Edison, the North American inventor who patented the creation of the light bulb.

Thomas did not have a formal education, as he was considered rebellious, and was educated at home by his mother. This allowed the boy to dedicate himself to science, a subject he was really interested in. He had a laboratory at home when he was just twelve years old

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deity. At just over forty years old, he had already registered approximately a thousand inventions and created his company, now General Electric.

Despite being known for inventing the electric light bulb, Edson used to buy the rights from the real inventors and make a business out of it. However, this fact does not take away the merit of the scientist who, among other devices, created the phonograph, the cinema camera, the electric car battery and the electric pen (currently used to make tattoos).

Learn more about GE's founder in his full biography.

9. Werner Heisenberg (1901 - 1976)

werner heisenberg

The German Heinsenberg was the son of a language teacher, but he was always interested in the world of physics, entering the University of Munich to study the subject when he was nineteen years old. Three years later he had already obtained his doctorate in physics.

His career was spent teaching physics, researching and directing institutes focused on the subject, which he directed for several years.

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Known as one of the founders of quantum mechanics, his best-known theory is the uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to determine at the same time the position and trajectory of a particle, because when we discover one we interfere with the other.

The physicist was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1932, for "the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which made possible, among others, the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen".

10. Nikola Tesla (1856 - 1943)

nikola tesla

Changing channels via remote control from the comfort of your sofa is now possible thanks to the Austrian inventor Nikola Tesla, responsible for fundamental technological discoveries for everyday life today, and other strange ones.

Nikola was trained by his father to exercise his reasoning since he was a child and his maternal family were inventors. When he was young, he enrolled in an electrical engineering course, but did not complete it. Yet he began his career as an engineer.

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After discovering the rotating magnetic field, fundamental in physics and devices that use alternating currents, he was invited to work at Thomas Edison's company.

The war of currents Edison x Tesla is very famous in the scientific field, and with bad consequences for both sides, but let's focus on Tesla's inventions: laser technology, wireless communication, neon lights, remote controls, cell phones, the radio, the ignition system that starts cars, among others.

Considered an unfair genius of science, Tesla, after countless battles against Edison and a reputation destroyed by slander, died alone and in debt in the hotel room where he lived in New York.

Want to know more about Tesla? Then read his full biography.

11. Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

galileo galilei

The Italian Galileo Galilei was a mathematician, physicist, astronomer and philosopher who, so revolutionary in his ideas, was considered crazy, heretic, and condemned by the church to live alone and isolated at home, denying his inventions.

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It was when he was studying medicine at the University of Pisa, at the age of twenty, that his first famous invention occurred: the theories that allowed the construction of the pendulum clock. Afterwards, unable to pay for the course, he had to continue his studies alone at home, dedicating himself to mathematics, physics and astronomy.

Among his most incredible discoveries are: the improvement of the telescope, which allowed him to prove that the Earth was not the center of the universe and revolved around the sun (Heliocentric Theory), and not the opposite as the church preached at the time. This discovery ended up leading him to be sentenced by the church to life imprisonment at home, and Galilei ended up dying nine years later, at home.

Learn more about the genius who changed everyone's perception of the universe through his complete biography.

12. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 - 1736)

daniel fahrenheit

Imagine a world where we couldn't measure the temperature of things, know when it's too hot, too cold, what the ideal body temperature, food preparation and etc. It's because of the German physicist, inventor of the "thermometer by

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expansion of mercury" and the "Fahrenheit Scale" that these things are possible today.

His life was basically dedicated to the manufacture of hygrometers, thermometers and other precision tools. Although the invention of the thermometer was originally attributed to Galileo Galilei, it was Fahrenheit who managed to make measurement accurate and transform physical studies into an instrument that is still used today in some countries.

I want to say in a few words that intelligence will always be something that started from nothing to everything and that it will always go to the extreme because science has no limits and that there will always be a logic to different theories and I want to congratulate these great people who showed that the soul has value and created the best things in life and the best thing is to create something satisfying that makes us live better and deeply understand life and thank you to everyone from the writer and scientist Roberto Barros!

Here in my newspaper I want to thank everyone with lots of love and work and say that I am deeply happy to show this great discovery that will help many science researchers to develop great research and I want to say that I am happy and thank you very much.

THE GENIUS OF ALCHEMY

It was a summer where everything seemed very calm, where a pure metaphysics gave way to a more philosophical dignity of prescribing different sciences that, in my opinion, things always rise from death to resurrect the life that was when the nights were densely hot over a cold atmosphere that was when the air was transformed through hydrogenation into the smallest fraction of an element that was creating a life more supposedly on an atomic element of a cautious weight that was emptied into the atmosphere in which everything could have walked on a form to contain and live when the birds rest in the trees is intended to breathe oxygen as an emanation of thriving more life and when the melody of the seeds that are planted deep grows several trees sprouting from a seed in a very sandy soil in that germinates like a song about the proteins that descend from the sun on the load of rainwater that carry out the growth process under the sandy heat of the soil that feeds and at the same time animates and germinates regarding the supernatural forces of the universe that proliferates us on great relativities with life and development with all the atomic elements of the universe that is carried over the earth a more geological aspect between the chemistry that procreates on life the growth of a seed to make and grow different trees in that nature can be reflected on a whole argument of heat and cold about life that grows, giving us more life and contour to establish such living beings as trees and plants that come out and show themselves more alive under the nature that favors us of great and estimable natural developments in life and we are going to talk about a more besieging alchemy that we can describe that science would be the construction of all lives through the creation of certain attributes in relativity with life and I want here now to talk about the alchemy that is the chemistry of the Middle Ages, which sought to discover the universal panacea, or remedy against all physical and moral ills, and the philosopher's stone, which was supposed to transform metals into gold; spargyria, spagيrica.

We can understand by alchemy that it was and is a practice focused on the transformations of matter that makes different sciences, such as Chemistry, Physics, Astrology, Philosophy, Art, Metallurgy, Medicine, Mysticism and Religion and also the alchemy of love and sex is a work on tantra, sexuality and spirituality in the full sense, of sacred love. The text makes us reflect on what we actually expect from loving relationships that make us love and feel pleasure over a wide variety of feelings that rise above a great purpose created by the strength of will and desire and adoration that alchemy is performed on a great emotional relativity of both positive and negative senses in which the force of love is released on a concentration of great emotional charges that makes beings fall in love with another person and thus the force of the mind is directed that applies to different modalities and personalities of an individual who supposedly can habitually dedicate himself to that person by creating a passion for the moral fluid that goes beyond character and personality to preserve a good friendship in which everything can be equally well balanced by a gesture and feeling of love and we can see that alchemy develops into a metamorphosis in which the chemistry of love involves great electrical effects of the spirit that passes into the soul and identifies with the person who conceived himself to love and simply dedicated himself body and soul to this person on a emotional bond called,. The alchemy that of love.

I want to talk about the mysticism that would be the other side of the reaction of a good adventure about a great transformation, both chemical and material, that we can see and classify everything in life today as a great relativity of alchemy that has always played its role more than discoverable over all modalities and monotony in which the human being can have his own character and his personality would be the basis for establishing a moral conduct on a great qualification and relationship with the social environment as well as the scientific relations that affect the life of each human being who dedicates himself to work, to love, to sport and in everything we can reveal about a philosophical effect in which we can see all the psychologies applied to the letter and how much time we have and how much space we can contemplate this formality and I mean that everything is contained in a large conjunction that gives us mathematics and the theory of sciences about a great fascination for life that we can understand the great development of the human being over life since prehistory and the birth of the world that chemically formalized all the elements of life in a carburization well flows hint of certain elements that combined over a great atomic heating in which all the molecules and particles fed and formed a nucleus called earth that we can truly unravel all the mysteries of nature by this extraordinary combination of atomic elements and outputs and electron centrifuges causing a planetary effect on life and everything would be logical to our nature when we can homogenize the human being with nature itself that would be winged by a smaller fraction of an element and exhaust outlets creating life in a variety relative to various atomic elements that are formalized as protons, electrons and neutrons and we are going to talk about the great alchemy of life that made the world and created the human being who feels and thinks and acts through emotions and we can dedicate ourselves to the study of life in terms of biology that studies life and I simply want to say that everything is contained in an effect of transmutation and transformation between various aspects that involves the nature and life of the human being and I want to talk about alchemy and its biochemical functions that have been preserved and developed various transformations biological aspects to the human metabolism that is identified with a great fertilizing effect of the spirit that is nuclear chemistry and the matter that is the atomic nucleus and everything is a function between proteins, vitamins and mineral salts that in metaphysics we take a dive into biology clearly that every process of the human being is carried out in terms of psychology that influences the emotions of each chemical element as a repository of energy on the mind that is encoded by the organism and transformed into liquid substances for the good organic functioning of the organism, transforming us into various physiological aspects that perform mechanical and metabolic functions on the human being for a smaller fraction of time and the space that is dense and works formatively on a magnetic alchemy that we can prescribe its maturation and transformation of the elements on life as well as the chemical functions between a physical aspect of Elemental existence of the universe that is dense in its state of time and space and let's think about the alchemy of life that simplifies us with its characteristics of conjunction, transformation and combination and everything is contained under a great relativity of birth, growth and evolution in which we see biology as a preliminary study of life and its functions and relationships with life and we can say that alchemy is about a great variety of involvements with all life and the world can always tell us where its secrets live as long as there are lives on earth life.

It was a summer where everything seemed very calm, where a pure metaphysics gave way to a more philosophical dignity of prescribing different sciences that, in my opinion, things always rise from death to resurrect the life that was when the nights were densely hot over a cold atmosphere that was when the air was transformed through hydrogenation into the smallest fraction of an element that was creating a life more supposedly on an atomic element of a cautious weight that was emptied into the atmosphere in which everything could have walked on a form to contain and live when the birds rest in the trees is intended to breathe oxygen as an emanation of thriving more life and when the melody of the seeds that are planted deep grows several trees sprouting from a seed in a very sandy soil in that germinates like a song about the proteins that descend from the sun on the load of rainwater that carry out the growth process under the sandy heat of the soil that feeds and at the same time animates and germinates regarding the supernatural forces of the universe that proliferates us about great relativities with life.

I believe they are all timed by a great alchemy that in my opinion I always dedicated myself body and soul to space and that was when I discovered that we are a small atomic universe that we have all the relativities about our bodies that look like the universe that destined mind we can see and understand how it all began and let's say that we are pieces of the universe because I believe that we have everything and everything in the universe and we are earthly beings and at some point we can understand the entire history of life by also simplifying the history of the Bible and we can clearly say that we have ancestors and that time remained silent and stuck in the past and that perhaps among mere circumstances of life I believe that the world has already lived several different and intelligent beings before us who studied life with great dedication and went through both this planet and this planet has undergone a great transformation of various races and living beings that we can truly say that time does not stop and has always left us with great memories that are mixed with various sciences and technologies that we simply learned to get to know alchemy and its chemical transformations that, you see, the human being has undergone a great effect and transformation on all modalities and relativities of life and that the human being can be well united to certain alchemies that supposedly in the past, indivisible moment and short space were created- if we take it and we can say that we are descendants of life and a very similar construction as we stand on a great transformation and natural creation of nature that helped us with four natural elements that are called air, water, earth and fire that completes us atomic mind and is part of the organic system because I believe that we are so far from the reality of life that we will still have to prescribe all the dilemmas and sayings that make us know about the human development of the human being and its functions as a chemical transformation of each created existence by each atom in a variety of certain harmful substances both positive and negative and thus the spirit that we call nuclear chemistry was formed, which may have been generated under a great universal transformation according to the plans of God that everything that exists was created by God. He created heaven, earth, living beings, angels and humanity. God gives life to all of us and wants to bless us. All creation is God's work to his praise. He created everything to be good.

Because of sin, creation was tainted. Now there are imperfections, pain and suffering. But we can still see God's hand in the beauty and detail of creation. One day God will destroy sin and restore all creation! In Jesus we are new creation.

Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness. Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, over the great beasts of all the earth, and over all the small animals that move along to the ground."

For in six days the Lord made the heavens and the earth, the sea and everything in them, but on the seventh day he rested. Therefore, the Lord blessed the seventh day and sanctified it.

God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.

For since the creation of the world the invisible attributes of God, his eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through created things, so that such men are without excuse;

The Lord gave you the breath of life, for it is written: "Then the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul." (Genesis 2.7) Of all his creation, the human body was the only thing that God formed with his own hands.

I believe that we are all timed by a great alchemy that in my opinion I have always dedicated myself body and soul to space and that was when I discovered that we are a small atomic universe that we have all the relativities about our bodies that look like the universe that with our minds we can see and understand how it all began and let's say that we are pieces of the universe because I believe that there is in us everything and everything that is in the universe and we are terrestrial beings and at some point we can understand the entire history of life by also simplifying the history of the Bible and we can clearly say that we have ancestors and that time remained silent and stuck in the past.

Alchemy can tell us today how homogeneous we are with life and that every relationship with nature dominates us in a formation that is more fearless at the time of coming and going, as we can say that God gave us life and death made us from all the relativities of life in circumstances of the maturation of the human being that develops under the clairvoyance of the light that shows us love and life and death comes from the darkness of life that shows us hate, detachment and suffering and that can make us understand that it would be the beginning of the another life and so on that it is by dying that we live to eternal life. Alchemy would be a deeper relationship in which all man's relationships with society can be transformed by the strength of the mind along with the personal formation and character of anyone moral fluid that is conceived with education as a logical formulation of understanding which soon resembles society as sociology and means of communication that we can unravel this story more fluently as a development of certain substances and proteins that makes the metabolism react on mental development like an alchemy of flow over all emotions passing as character itself and perfecting the human being about life and I want to say that we are well timed under great influences both morally that is conceived on the part of the soul to mental control and on the physical part that is conceived of the development between the character and the physiological formation that we can develop on the strength and power of the mind that causes a magical effect on the organism multiplying the maturing cells on the great development of mental and physical functions and I want to classify this theory as a chemical tone of a great alchemy that logically we can develop it on various anthropological aspects that in physics and chemistry we can classify as the great development, both material and spiritual, according to religions, man becomes something relatively superior and prevails over the energies and overloads of electrons, passing to the atomic nucleus as a background and we simplify this theory is more peaceful and realistic to the material and soul development, leaving the human being above all the relativity and genetic transformation of life and thus alchemy spreads over different aspects of the human being and I want to say that we were perhaps made of both fire and water and This is how the human being is combined and can be contained in several atomic elements, which is divided into three fundamental elements that are electrons, protons and neutrons and thus resembles and creates life and we can understand its purposes and relativities with all of nature.

I want to thank all my great and esteemed friends and readers and say that I am very happy to show all my point of view that aligns with this great and extraordinary context that I explain here for everyone to see and know a little about true alchemy which relates to all aspects of human beings in life and I want to say with immense love to everyone at Edu academy that I created this contest with several studies and research for everyone to see and show to great researchers and thank you very much and a big hug!

THE TRUE STORY OF THE SUPREME MIND

Dear and illustrious friends, I believe that today you are living a life of surprise that, due to the day-to-day coordination, we have not sufficiently acquired our purposes to act and gain adequately in a more definitive and realistic way of living and witnessing everything, the perfect power of living and be alive because I tell you honestly and reliably that there are such factors in our lives capable of identifying us with the truth that we simply call the supreme mind that is abiu, acted and is on a cyclonic basis with our being that lives today weakens mind insecure even with Its own nature that is not adapted to certain doctrines and daily celebrations of a mind knew that everything feels and does due to such circumstances created in life.

Firstly, I want to talk about fundamental bases that govern us in a more efficient way in which perhaps they are proposing statistical insertions that are certainly not maneuvered by our consciences that I am expressing here theoretically and then all of you put into practice good and real actions that Our lives that go from being insecure and unbalanced to social environments and certainly what we call personal environments that are subject to great maladjustments, the engine of a mind that is not being well monitored, will be more beneficial to the precepts of living that are like daily tables for us to live by. and we learn where to play better because I tell you that everything has its logic and the best logic is to think so that we act correctly in the face of a routine that tomorrow we will thank ourselves for not lacking in our actions that we consecrate with optimism that everything will be in order because the Life can be too morbid because I believe we are walking with our heads down in a well-defined and simplified context, the mere circumstances of life, which are weak because we do not properly formalize our maneuvers, which are imposed in irrational ways when there are human incapacities to assimilate its key function of living and making it always alive while we are dying of incapacities generated by a substantial factor called discipline so that we can understand ourselves and discover any purposes in our lives. I want to talk about the human mind and its relations with matter because I tell you that consciousness could be our vehicles of attention while we can be inside this dramatic workshop that drives us towards a more idealized mechanics, the forms and formulas of all existence that we call human mind that completes us basically on certain profit motives when we know how to use its convalescence on health that is almost sick like certain embryos caused as an immature organism or weakness of our functions to act on a chemistry that we can certainly call it the alchemy of feelings that is in spiritual contact with the spirit that is alive and gives us life because it is the atomic chemistry of the nucleus that is combined as an atom into a smaller fraction of an element that we can consciously think about and consciously keep about certain doctrines that can distance us from the inabilities and reactions of life, leaving behind all mental illnesses when we are subject and depressed about something, we are certainly being attracted to certain emotions of sadness or joy that we call uncertainties of consciousness because I tell you that the mind It can and does perform miracles when it can also destroy us due to a factor out of step with our emotions that can generate something unsatisfactory to our achievements in life because we can live happily when there is a certain degree of happiness that resulted in our consistencies that we can say that nothing was bad and we are doing much better because self-confidence plays almost the same role as a sad war of nerves called insecurity that we can be prone to social maladjustments that in any contradiction nothing would be inevitable and I want to tell you that the mind is like a small cosmic universe that subtly it spins and makes us overflow over various phenomenal aspects of all our existences of winning or losing in life. I wanted to talk about a great writer called Joseph Murphy, one of the most famous writers of the New Thought movement, founded by Malinda Cramer. He is the author of more than 30 self-help books, many of them best sellers worldwide. He spent many years studying the world's main religions, having become convinced of the existence of a great power behind them all, the power of the subconscious mind. He was ordained Minister of the Church of Divine Science and for twenty-eight years he was director of this church in Los Angeles, where more than 1,500 people attended every Sunday. He also had a radio program that was very popular in its time. As a writer, Murphy was influenced by Malinda Cramer, Ernest Holmes, and Emmet Fox, also famous New Thought writers. But he also had academic training in Eastern religions. In fact, he spent many years in India, where he was a researcher at Andhra Research University. It's like they say that there are certain factors in our lives that cannot be the end in everything because they lead us to certain doctrines of overcoming the weaknesses of life.

I also want to talk about overcoming in life because we are simply not safe with the social modalities that always make us react to such circumstances of being able to operate something in such contexts that are like maneuvers of existences carried out even at work that predominate us in certain activities that we need to be in good health and almost all of us experience physical difficulties due to being physically exhausted by certain movements that become monotonous to our resistances and I want to talk about a therapy that we could simply activate in a context of validating our organisms and physical health by doing sports of different modalities because this way we would find true physical conservation for certain purposes. Whether individual or team, sports are among the main physical activities practiced by modern man. According to research by the Brazilian Ministry of Sports, carried out in 2013, almost half of Brazilians who practice physical activities are fans of some sport.

There are several versions that explain the origin of sports. Some historians claim that the first sporting events took place in Ancient Greece, while others believe that, before sport became a common activity, warriors had fun with the head of one of those defeated in war, and this grotesque habit evolved into practices sports.

The most common sports vary depending on the region, as weather conditions greatly influence practice. In China, for example, the most popular sport is table tennis; in Australia, it is rugby; in Kenya, it is athletics; and in Canada, ice hockey. In Brazil, the national passion is football, one of the most popular sports in the world.

The taste for sports periodically brings together the main athletes from different countries. Originating in Greece, around 770 BC, the Jogos The Olympic Games take place every two years, alternating between the Winter and Summer Olympics, and involve the participation of approximately 200 countries. Another popular sporting event, especially in Brazil, is the Football World Cup, which takes place every four years and brings together 32 teams.

Brazil

According to research by the Ministry of Sports carried out in 2013, the ten most practiced sports in Brazil are, in order: football; walking and running; volleyball; gym and bodybuilding; swimming; futsal; bodybuilding; cycling; handball; and basketball.

I believe that you are today living a life of surprise that we have not sufficiently acquired our purposes to act and gain adequately in a more definitive and realistic way of living and witnessing everything the perfect power of living and being alive because I tell you honestly and reliably that there are such factors in our lives capable of identifying us with the truth that we simply call the supreme mind that is abiu, acted and is on a cyclonic basis with our being that lives today weakening mind insecure even with its own nature that is not adapted to certain doctrines and daily celebrations of a mind knew that everything feels and does due to such circumstances created in life because we have to be more active and we should not live in uncertainty because reality can be and is transforming us in every way of our lives because it is right to persist after something that will not tarnish the bright side of living because this thing could perhaps be our mentalities of persisting over the laws of nature that is inevitable the weaknesses of life that we cannot admit because it is the most a reflection of learning to live and be happy forever, conquering a supreme mind that favors us with full freedom to live.

THE SUPREMACY OF PSYCHOMETRY OF SCIENCES AND THE THREE PARTS OF THE HUMAN BEING

I come here with a lot of love and work to show a beautiful narrative that I talk about beautiful psychometric texts that will serve as a great philosophical support that shows all my intuition, soul and point of view that I decipher a better way in which I talk about chemistry and its durability that unite over the body, spirit and soul as I also decipher about physics with its durability in which it unites over the body, spirit and soul that play a beautiful role in psychoanalysis that I have been covering in beautiful narrations and that I also talk about about biology that unite with the body, spirit and soul in which I surprise everyone with a great conviction to show great researchers how I expressed myself about the three elements that are well psychoanalyzed about a beautiful and graceful philosophy that I leave here for everyone to see the best of all my work as a writer, scientist and philosopher for everyone to see and keep as one of my best memories of a student who sees life well qualified and I wish you all a good read and have my strong and best hug and thank you very much !

May life infect us with three genuine things as the three elements that are part of our being and that completes us with a good philosophy and psychometry well narrated in depth by my words and thank you.

In the body of chemistry:

For great relevance here, I want to explain a little systematically a proportion that we can classify chemistry starting with its development that by a simple notion I want to explain about the body that systematically is the atomic nucleus so that we can define its capabilities on matter with chemistry that composes and conceives all the liquid substances that develop in the organic system that, due to a biotic and metabolic function, chemistry has the property, most commonly, of translating an alchemy over each atom created from cells that we know that the fundamental level of matter is the atoms. These atoms group together, interact with each other and form molecules. Molecules, in turn, can organize themselves and form compounds. Molecules together with compounds form organelles, which together form cells.

What atoms make up a cell?

This varies depending on the size of the cell, not all of them correspond to the same size. However, this number is approximately 7 quadrillion atoms per cell, if we take the total number of atoms in the body and divide it by the total number of cells in the human body.

The atoms that make up a cell!

The most abundant atoms, which constitute the majority of biological molecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids), are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and phosphorus.

What is an atom in biology?

Atom → constituent particle of matter, formed by protons, neutrons and electrons. Molecule → is the smallest portion of a substance, made up of atoms of the same chemical element or different elements.

In turn, the body is combined in each atomic element that we can show its behavior ntos about matter or body that acts by the energy of the spirit that vivifies each atom in the smallest fraction of an element capable of entering into a supposedly once, indivisible moment and short space to transform by nuclear chemistry a great combination that enter into organic function for each part of the body following the cells that it is and cells can be defined as the structural and functional units of all living beings. These structures are living, carry the genetic information of a given organism and are capable of transmitting this information at the time of cell division as the atom is composed of three elements that are basic constituents of an atom. Protons, neutrons and electrons are constituent elements of an atom. In the nucleus of the atoms, there are protons and neutrons. Around the nucleus, there are the electrons in which form a human body called the atomic nucleus which in turn are composed by the combination of each element in which the spirit first called nuclear chemistry submit to certain biochemical functions that develop the organism giving more life and the ability to develop in all probabilities of the existence of life that completes us together with the four natural elements that make up our organisms and are similar to the development and nuclear organic composition that we can call air, water, earth and fire that are formulated between both metabolic circumstances causing an effect of biotic transformation between their organic functions that align with matter, which in turn is called the body, which is physically the atomic nucleus in which we can naturally be called living beings.

In the spirit of chemistry:

We can classify this term by a great designation in which by a clairvoyance of the spirit that in physics is called nuclear chemistry where we can specify in the logic of the system that in everything and through everything there is a spirit that gave life and that makes everything live because it would be from this spirit that alchemy that favored us played a great role over the alchemists who created the elixir of long life and the philosopher's stone that gave rise to the modern knowledge of chemistry that today we can designate a great probability and construction of life over a contradiction that the The spirit is immortal and is over everything and out of everything life was formed and the spirit conceived light in it and the light was transformed into life and life gave us the integrity that is over everything and in all things that can preserve us so much from top to bottom and bottom to top and this is how man was made about the life that led him through nuclear chemistry and the spirit that gave him life in which we can know in depth the history of the world that space was densely hot that it got very hot around billions of years in which it became like a ball of fire and exploded causing a nuclear transformation in which atoms come into combination in a short period of time where we can designate a state of transformation in which everything was and was formed into several things and thus life was created when the world seemed calm where all the atomic elements were chemically formed an atomic atom that classified in chemistry would be like a spirit that generated and transformed from nothing to everything in which we can classify the spirit as nuclear chemistry that gave birth to life and thus formed the earth and living beings that were created on three fundamental elements called neutrons, protons and electrons in which an atomic nucleus called a body was formed, which is simply the matter in which for its functions chemicals generated by the spirit, firstly the nuclear chemistry that made man and the earth and thus all things were formalized before a great Elemental transformation in which in everything that is life there is spirit while it is from the spirit that life began and so we can classify this term by a great designation in which by a clairvoyance of the spirit that in physics is called nuclear chemistry where we can specify in the logic of the system that in everything and through everything there is a spirit that gave life and that makes everything live because it would be from this spirit that alchemy that favored us played a great role over the alchemists who created the elixir of long life and the philosopher's stone that gave rise to the modern knowledge of chemistry that today we can designate a great probability and construction of life over a contradiction that the spirit is immortal and is above everything and from everything life was formed.

In the soul of chemistry:

We can better transcribe these terms through a logic more focused on the construction and creation of the imagination that in everything is done in the soul, which is the subtle electricity that is generated by the also chemical force of the spirit that passes through the feeling and thought that is subtle and is of It is there that the good things that we pacify are created from the benign force of love and the malignant force of hate. In this context I say that in all circumstances, through moments of good or bad humor, things are constant.

noises about a fascinating recognition or dream of youth as well as evidence of achievements and challenges in life that make us react on our mental impulses that by the force of will related to either the fear or the hatred that we submit to build or impose ourselves from the depths of the right consciousness dynamic, the mere distractions of the egotrip on the emotional forces of the mind that drive us to build certain things to mere pleasure that turns into the soul and that it is from the soul that a personality is recognized that extinguishes itself into a way of being and leading itself to the mere pleasure of being someone and conducting oneself about life and the world from the depths of consciousness, over all the distractions of life and the climates of tension created by negative reasons generated by the harshness of life that has not managed to submerge there is a certain advantage of the desire that makes nature human beings feel pleasure and it is said that it is from pleasure that things are formed in the soul because we can create a beautiful expression about life when perhaps it is not friendly or in certain circumstances of the will and so the soul was made in the world all the colors as captive love over the mind of a dreamer who conquered life or a writer who prescribed his best dilemma and told his story and the essence of the soul would certainly never lack the best things that preserve us intensely and flow our thoughts as much as we can. admit them as social schools and that if it is from thought that the fruits of knowledge about life are preserved, we can give more shine and light to any creation or art of living and we must never forget that the soul is simply the subtle electricity of life that preserves us and pleases us with every shelf of creativity, dream, construction that we can store and remember in our subconscious forever and here I want to talk a little about chemistry.

Chemistry is the science that studies the composition, structure, properties of matter, the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions and its relationship with energy. It is considered an exact science and is often called a central science because it is the bridge between other natural sciences such as physics, mathematics and biology. Chemistry plays a fundamental role in technological development, as the use of the concepts and techniques of this science allows the obtaining of new substances, in addition to being concerned with the prevention of damage and sustainable exploitation of the environment.

The areas of chemistry are grouped into four major divisions, namely: inorganic chemistry (studies inorganic matter), organic chemistry (studies carbon compounds), physical chemistry (comprises the energetic and kinetic aspects of chemical systems and their transformations into macroscopic, and atomic-molecular scales), and analytical chemistry (analyzes materials and helps to understand their composition and quantity of chemical systems). Interdisciplinary and complementary areas include biochemistry, chemistry teaching, and environmental chemistry.

In the body of physics:

I want to reveal a good image about this context that I tell you that in everything and for everything life would never stop persisting ahead of all things and no one would simply silence the science that defines us and is above all the relativities of nature that makes us react on its phenomena and its general aspects that the dynamics of life has always proposed to us a great relationship with the nature of both the human being and life that makes us think about various ideas in which man would be an artifact regarding certain probabilities that could be facing him conserving about life in that its dynamics always react in the face of a setback that takes us back in time to the space that remotes us, various consequences on the stone age as well as the great human development that made man conquer the moon and we can preserve a recognition deeper and more friendly about the spiritual wonder and development of the soul about life in how little they survive inadequate with the recognition of life about religions that can be the good of the socialist man who sees life as more modernized and attributed with uncertain upheavals and commitments with education, companionship, love, justice, politics and simply religion that we can add a socialized and modernized reasoning to the world that is always radicalizing the power of devaluation and reconstitution over life and we think how much understanding is worth about other classes in how much The world does not have the same mechanism of exercising uncertain standards and conformities over life to highlight the broader knowledge of great people who believe in the advancement of science and advanced technology and let's talk about a more persevering physics that could have shown man everything around his poster and achievement of better recognizing life and the world that was born for the man who developed and grew for the man who managed to dominate him in some aspects that he could sam to formalize us with life and died to conquer life and the world and even so he has to show more love and affection for his fellow men and that he must above all create something better to preserve the lives of everyone and the planet itself and so We will have the most intimate integrity left and we say the right things about education that can never fail in everyone's life.

In the spirit of physics:

I believe that we are centered on a measure of time in which we have to trace all the right things about a great relativity that we can relate deeply to all the elements that make up both space, planet earth and the human being and we must prescribe each metaphysics systematically on all the chemical functions focused on the material nuclear state of the human being and all the chemical functions focused on the nature of life that predominates us and makes us create consistency and understanding through the dynamics of living and socializing life in a more defined way that allows us to can preserve so much the integrity of the human being over religion and politics that it is always discouraged and eliminated among all social classes that try to preserve the dynamics of education and the civil patriotism of the military who align themselves inconsequentially, perhaps more for power and self-pride What the world needs is education as a civil means and love for everyone so as not to obscure social freedom over life and people who have not understood the true value of God and who are ruining themselves behind a false idea of live and get to know life better up close. Where would human reasoning and intelligence be?

We need to preserve among certain physics simply the ability to establish certain bonds of sovereignty between a small interval of time that makes us stop to think about the right things that we admit about the dreams and fascinations of human beings against the deficiencies of life that redeems them and causes uncertain risks against the democracy of life and we can use the dynamics against the space that distances itself from the truth that cannot be silenced or disguised because justice cannot remain silent and has to act on the deficiencies generated by life and the man is no longer compatible with time because he depends conductively on space that tries to eliminate his sound or resonant on uncertain evil waves that absorbs him against social incapacities and let us see the world more catatonic and we can understand its development and space on the reasoning of living and build life on the modalities of the man who throws himself into physics to establish a more complete metaphysics about his dynamics and skills of living and thus perhaps we can understand all the natural relationships that govern the life of the man who conquered space, who modernized life.

In the soul of physics:

I believe that we are wise to deeply observe the nature of physics that makes us seek an infinity about the existence of the universe that shows us with great affection and relativity all the relationships between man and space that dedicated himself to going to the stars to prove that life exists in space and for a great achievement he stepped on the moon which was a brilliant discovery that made the world see up close a dream that fascinated the minds of many scientists and people who see the world in a different way that we can dedicate ourselves with body and soul about a great fascination with mysterious things that surround the universe that we become more aware of life and its dynamics that there are phenomena in space and that we learn to value life through a simple notion of believing in the existence of the world over the human being and that we are a small cosmic universe and that we can know different things that go unnoticed about us and I think that the nature of man has managed to better understand some things in physics that breaks up in space, showing us that there are souls in a genuine specialty of our thinking that we have admitted to knowing life in another better way and that has always existed over a great concentration of time, a certain set of ideas that made space man get to know up close the mysterious history of life and how everything could have started over again and we can understand the distance of time over the right thought or uncertain that makes a mind develop upon an identity and predominant concepts that we can still accept time as a contradiction of prescribing in the logic of wisdom and have an affection for such knowledge that we can dedicate ourselves to the study of the physics of man who saw god and followed his words and that science defines us an eternal understanding about great challenges of man against life and we will leave the space as an emanation of man for a setback of light about the understanding of living and dying that we apprehend with life and about reason of living and I want to talk a little about physics here.

Physics is science entity that studies nature and its phenomena in their general aspects. It analyzes their relationships and properties, in addition to describing and explaining most of their consequences. It seeks scientific understanding of the natural and general behaviors of the world around us, from elementary particles to the universe as a whole. With the support of the scientific method and logic, and with mathematics as a natural language, this science describes nature through scientific models. It is considered fundamental science, synonymous with natural science: natural sciences, such as chemistry and biology, have roots in physics. Its presence in everyday life is very broad, making it practically impossible to provide a complete description of the physical phenomena around us. The application of physics for human benefit has contributed invaluably to the development of all modern technology, from the automobile to quantum computers.

Historically, the affirmation of physics as a modern science is closely linked to the development of mechanics, whose main pillars of study are mechanical energy and linear and angular momentum, their conservations and variations. Since the end of the Middle Ages there was a need to understand mechanics, and the knowledge of the time, especially Aristotelian knowledge, was no longer sufficient. Galileo focused his studies on projectiles, pendulums and the movements of the planets; Isaac Newton later elaborated the fundamental principles of dynamics by publishing his laws and universal gravitation in his book Principia, which became the most influential scientific work of all time. Thermodynamics, which studies the causes and effects of changes in temperature, pressure and volume on a macroscopic scale, had its origins in the invention of heat engines during the 18th century. His studies led to the generalization of the concept of energy. The connection between electricity, which studies electrical charges, with magnetism, which is the study of properties related to magnets, was only noticed at the beginning of the 19th century by Hans Christian طrsted. The physical and mathematical descriptions of electricity and magnetism were unified by James Clerk Maxwell. From then on, these two areas, together with optics, began to be treated as different views of the same physical phenomenon, electromagnetism. At the beginning of the 20th century, the inability to describe and explain certain observed phenomena, such as the photoelectric effect, raised the need to open new horizons for physics. Albert Einstein published the theory of general relativity in 1915, proposing the constancy of the speed of light and its hitherto unimaginable consequences. Einstein's theory of relativity leads to one of the most important conservation principles in physics, the relationship between mass and energy, generally expressed by the famous equation E=mc². General relativity also unifies the concepts of space and time: gravity is just a consequence of the deformation of space-time caused by the presence of mass. Max Planck, when studying blackbody radiation, was forced to conclude that energy is divided into "packets", known as quanta. Einstein physically demonstrated Planck's ideas, establishing the first roots of quantum mechanics. The development of quantum field theory brought a new view of the mechanics of fundamental forces. The emergence of quantum electro- and chromodynamics and the subsequent unification of electromagnetism with the weak force at high energies are the basis of the standard model, the main theory of subatomic particles, capable of describing most of the phenomena on the microscopic scale that affect the main areas of physics.

Physics is a significant and influential science and its evolutions are often translated into the development of new technologies. Advances in knowledge in electromagnetism have allowed the development of technologies that certainly influence the daily lives of modern society: the mastery of electrical energy has allowed the development and construction of electrical devices; The mastery over electromagnetic radiation and the refined control of electrical currents allowed the emergence of electronics and the consequent development of global telecommunications and information technology. The development of knowledge in thermodynamics allowed transport to no longer be dependent on animal or human strength thanks to the advent of thermal engines, which also boosted an entire Industrial Revolution. None of this would be possible, however, without the development of mechanics, which has its roots linked to the development of physics itself. However, like any other science, physics is not static. Physicists are still working to solve theoretical problems, such as the "vacuum catastrophe", quantum gravitation, thermodynamics of black holes, supplementary dimensions, the arrow of time, cosmic inflation and the Higgs mechanism. There are still phenomena to be observed empirically and experimentally demonstrated that still lack scientific explanations, such as the possible existence of dark matter, cosmic rays with theoretically very high energies and even everyday observations such as turbulence. To this end, very sophisticated equipment was built, such as the Large Hadron Collider, the largest particle accelerator ever built in the world, located at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

In the body of biology

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind.

In the theory of the soul ('psyche') created by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939, Austrian neurologist).

Therapeutic method created by S. Freud, used in cases of neurosis and psychosis, which essentially consists of the interpretation, by a psychoanalyst, of the unconscious contents of an individual's words, actions and imaginary productions, based on free associations and transference.

I believe that we are going through a great transformation in which the mind can respond to a state more related to the celebratory functions than we can perform a career or a gesture by any part of the consciousness that resulting from the chemical transformations the organism retains itself to take various forms that makes the human being conduct himself or obstruct his functions to develop a thought that, due to the circumstances of the soul generated by the chemical transformation of the spirit, which in its nuclear periphery, passing into the liquid state of matter, everything reacts and transforms into a living thought that gives us the chance to think and act through the senses when we can achieve something substantial through the five senses, which are related to the perception of the internal and external environment, are smell, taste, vision, hearing and touch. The internal and external environment provide a wide variety of sensations, which are perceived thanks to our nervous system and our sense organs, which the mind, under a great charge of energy from the spirit, transforms and transports to transform all relationships into feelings. emotions of the mind with the living organism that is released on a great relativity and organic function of the organism causing a secondary effect on the organism developing on human cells an extraordinary source of energy causing great moral and personal transformations on chemical effects and fluid of the spirit that we can classify a cognition about perception and thought that from the depths of the soul we remain more complete to the five senses of the human body causing a metabolic effect on the functions of the organism and on the human mind.

Who created the theory of moods?

Hippocrates (460-370 BC), considered the “father of medicine”, although medicine existed since Ancient Egypt with the philosopher and poet Imhotep (2655-2600 BC), developed a medical model based on Empedocles' four elements and attributed their characteristics of four humors (from the Latin humor, body fluid).

Humor theory:

It is important to locate the word “humor” in history: in Greco-Roman antiquity, the term was related to liquids and fluids. The evolution of its meaning developed towards “state of mind”. A “good-natured” person, therefore, would be someone with good moods/liquids inside them.

So, to understand the Theory of Humors, we must understand its roots:

The Greek philosopher Empedocles (c.495-435 BC) suggested that the four elements (water, air, fire and earth) and their characteristics (temperature and humidity/dryness) could explain the existence of any substance.

The physician Hippocrates (460 BC-377 BC), considered the father of Western Medicine, had philosophy as his ally. Thus, he developed a medical model based on these four elements, attributing their characteristics to bodily fluids – the humors. Thus, health would result from its balance, while excesses and lacks would explain disease states.

It was with the physician Galen (c.129-c.201 AD) that Hippocratic-based medicine reached its peak. He expanded the theory, relating it to personality and the emotional and behavioral inclinations of individuals.

Soon, the theory of moods/temperaments was developed. It consists of the hypothesis that each body will be formed by mixtures of the four elements, so that each being would be born with a combination of them.

The predominance of some element would result in a temperament. They would be:

Blood – in subjects who

they have excessive blood. Its resulting characteristics would be joy, optimism, confidence and extroversion.

•Phlegmatic – in subjects who have excessive phlegm. Its resulting characteristics would be shyness, apathy, slowness, tiredness and coherence.

•Choleric – in subjects who have excessive yellow bile. Its resulting characteristics would be irritability, intensity, impulsiveness and speed.

•Melancholic – in subjects who have excessive black bile. Its resulting characteristics would be artistic inclination, sadness, fear and introversion.

Thus, to promote health, the scholar recommended care in relation to the environment, sleep, rest, food and passions.

His sayings lasted until the Renaissance when new research began.

Although the theory is not part of current Psychology, its contribution to the area was notable. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that she contributed to the studies of Kant, Wundt and the Society of Jesus.

By: Paula Farias Akkari

Psychologist (CRP 06/178290), graduated from PUC-SP.

Master's student in Social Psychology at the same institution.

Postgraduate student at the Dasein Institute.

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind.

I want to say that certain things come from others as my psychoanalysis relates to the modification and emotional developments due to certain chemical combinations of certain substances that develop in the organism giving us a synthesis that the world originated from a great transformation that was densely hot and exploded causing in the relativity of life and existence the life that in mere circumstances we can say that the mind operates and performs miracles due to its protein content in which the spirit passes into a state of tonification that resurrects the matter that in alchemy we can prescribe that in everything there is a magic in which, based on nature, everything would be transmutable and transformable, which we can classify as a state of grace, also talking about spiritual development called holy spirit when alchemy reaches its highest point, reaching 90 degrees which transforms all organic substances into a great natural relativity that combines and passes to a certain state of chemical transformation of the spirit that enters the chemical functions of the organism in which an atom is created on life, which means a nucleus atomic as the key to all organic relativities forming a life and thus we prescribe all the emotional and moral fluids that govern human nature, asking us various questions of feeling and thought that are transformed by the nuclear energy of the spirit, nuclear chemistry, making a thousand ways of feel like loving, hating and much more as nature oscillates us with the relative functioning of the organism that remains in every biochemical relationship transforming us into various personalities that we can classify the mind as a generator of various submissions that shows us the most discoverable way human way of living and thus we can prescribe the human mind and its monotony and its more than secret desires as a way of loving or hating, leading us to the best or worst relationships with social life that can both oppress us and transform us into true geniuses in which all nature can show us and educate us according to life.

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in dissemination of and certain liquid and solid substances that occur in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation to the human mind and I want to thank you for my great enthusiasm and study and I want all scientists with master's degrees in social psychology as well as various geniuses in science can obtain great information with my great discovery and that it leads forward to develop great research and theory on the relativities of man with human nature in which he can develop in his class over all organic function a great exploration on development of the mental and moral fluid that we can develop great and extraordinary works on the most versatile mechanics of life and thank you all very much and I want to say that my studies are the foundations of my creation and thinking that I have always researched in the area of ​​modern science for the great future that awaits us with open doors.

In the spirit of biology:

I want to say that we live in a body that can be divided from an atom into several relationships that we could classify through the study of cells and atoms, a great variety of atomic elements that can be defined in a great property of certain functions that are related to the great organic development by the cells that constitute the human organism, among its most functional relations of the spirit, such as nuclear chemistry, which begins to exert great behavior among the functions of the organism, which exerts large charges of protons and electrons that vivify each atom in a smaller fraction of an element that was once supposed to be indivisible in a moment and in a short space enters into a great combination in space that transforms and destroys itself, giving rise to life as a centrifuge and electrons in a variety and combination between cells and molecules that appear as a chemical electricity that passes from the spirit to matter, giving chemical processes and vitalizing the organism in a rectilinear movement for all the organs and organic system that we can study these theoretical functions as a physics of thinking and building as an electronic device that in its functions that we can observe in each material element of a computer, a great relationship with the motherboard that contains the central processing unit, the HD, which is the data storage device, and the processor, which is the integrated circuit capable of processing the operation of data regarding memory, which is where the operating systems that resemble the organism are stored and we can classify a great virtue among the human body that is preserved through various processings on various chemical functions that are transformed into an atomic body called an atom in which we must preserve the most discoverable nature of cells and I want them to study well the molecules that particularly have beautiful constructions on the atoms in which we must deeply study their development and cells in the functioning of the organism that with beautiful studies and thoughts we can create a cell of ions like a pump in which energy external to the organism will emanate, which can be generalized more clearly about such functions and chemical pulsations from spirit to matter and thus we can better predict diseases about each atom of protons and neutrons in which we can develop electrical bioenergy function organic and I want everyone to research the biochemical reactions of relativities and organic functions and thank you very much and keep a study of the relativities of alchemy and hugs!

In the soul of biology:

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind that we can call Super Poltergeist energy that enters into emotional combination and function causing an extraordinary transformation of a thought in another that through the action of the spirit that we call nuclear chemistry we can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisibly we can with all the positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less that we could find love as the sky us bringing good memories that cells could develop large amounts of proteins, salts minerals and vitamins that are supposed to act on humans with an excellent food chain, with the body being well controlled in terms of metabolism and the chemical process in the cells that would develop as a basis for carbohydrates such as glucose and the brain specifically consumes 5.6 milligrams of glucose for every 100 grams of brain tissue per minute, according to Ramَn de Cangas, from the Spanish Academy of Dietetic Nutrition. And I want to talk about what is good for strengthening the brain?

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that starts to develop when we are in a good mood, in which we have a brilliant food chain that makes us function in relation to the emotional fluids in which we can relax all the imperfections of life that through the good circumstances of love we will be able to develop a good mental function that brings us happiness since the organism is well structured on a chemical reaction of the spirit on the soul in which we could talk about psychology in which we would be surprised by the good manner and education of identifying with the will and we will talk about the ego that makes us both happy and sad and thus the human mind develops in a discipline of flow over the organism a wide variety of emotions that we can trigger a good emotion such as a feeling of love or a feeling of hate that basically we can also admit it in the reaction of thought that we would be more surprised as an imagination or act and effect of feeling any transformations on the mind that feels and acts through the senses than we could say that the five human senses, responsible for capturing information from the environment, are vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Humans have five traditionally known senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch that we can relate to them and all material manifestations are classified with the relativity and chemical function of the spirit that governs and gives life to creation for the soul that It makes perfect sense to create and project itself into life and give us the light that we call emotional fluid that in mere circumstances the mind would be and it is a generator of energy that passes information to the body and the mind controls its emotions, both positive and negative. and thus we have an atomic nucleus that thinks and feels all the relativities of life and develops both love and hate reactions because the mind projects itself onto our fantasies that through the actions of optimism that everything can become reality and the ego is transformed in health when well-being is conceived causing a fluid effect on the celebratory emotions that drive us to feel both love when we are blessed and hate when we are bad-tempered and thus the chemical functions of the organism are transformed into mental reactions that give us makes us love or hate and turns to nature, it reveals and transforms us on various issues relatively in reaction to life and everything is transformed into something supposedly creative that makes life work and so the mind feels and reacts when it thinks and if creates something from our wills and everything is life and reaction of struggle over our emotional wills and I want to say that we can develop the side of both matter and spirit because the mind operates and performs miracles and we are what we think and feel depending on our valuable emotions which can be constructions or destructions, remaining in each vibrational chain as a set of ideas, both positive and negative, and so it really is a mind and the cosmos reacts formatively to its relationships with the nature of life and we can develop the spiritual side as well as the material in which we call your vibrations and mental contractions about great secondary effects of the mind on your ideas and dreams and we are human beings who learn to love and hate on a vibrational cycle of certain impulses both positive and negative and thus project our emotions onto a certain moment of reaction or destruction that we can be upset by a bad idea or transformed by a good will and so is life a logical and relative concept of construction and destruction on the mind and its emotions that would be on a good food classification that we provides diverse pleasures as our egos make us gain or lose due to variety and sentimental transformation in which thought is more favorable the bases and emotions of both love and hate and so we are perfect or we become dependent on life and its realities consume our nerves and depress us and want to make us know different things and we find life abstract and we fall into its modalities and we learn to live and that is what a human mind would be like that feels and thinks all the shades of life and so we stay day to day and formalize ourselves about our dreams and desires and which do not fit into fantasies and we will always be relative to the will that makes us act on life and we are faced with our emotions and we will search deep within our soul for an explanation for being alive and learning to live and our minds always transforming us into something superlative life or indifferent that we can identify with reality and we can admit that we are flowing on dreams and desires and that life is a school of habits and created by will and that we just feel all the effects and life would be an emotional set of diverse ideas that we simply touch and react with their guidelines and we can find love or hate for a matter of our socialist wills or means that surprises us and that makes us seek the realities of all the facts and we want a better life and we always archive our mind that makes us live the best and worst moments of our lives and we can live happily depending on our health and social well-being and we will remain intact to the negative murmurs of life's inabilities and we just accept the realities oppressing us a little because our emotions rehabilitate us to wanting to know the world up close and we fall into the decadence of life and living would be better in our ways in which we can feel more pleasure about life and our emotions perhaps keeps us alive through the salient life that makes us understand its reactions and so we can fight against despair as a more real fight and work and a good emotional functioning and so the human mind is a relatively supposed set in the past, indivisible moment and short space as an atom in the smallest fraction of an element that drives us and makes us live and so the mind would be a small universe that simply feels and makes us live through its emotions that simply give us life and the desire to know the world in which we can admit that we are going through the best and worst moments of our lives and we can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisibly we can with all positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less we could find something better in our lives and I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on the emotional and moral fluids that are extends over the great chemical development of the spirit, passing into the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that, through the substances of vitamins, proteins and mineral salts, cells become emergent in the organism, giving emotional functions to the organism, transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being is led to various transformations in dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that occur in the smallest fraction of an atom on the effects mental processes causing a great emotional transformation to the human mind that we can call Super Poltergeist energy that comes into emotional combination and function causing an extraordinary transformation of one thought into another that through the action of the spirit that we call nuclear chemistry we can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisible moment we can with all positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less that we could find love like heaven or hell in which everything can be a reaction of struggle in contradiction of our emotions that oppress us and give us pleasure in our feelings being aware of our desires as well as on earth and in the heavens and we should not oppress ourselves when we know where we want to do the best for ourselves because our emotions would always make our realities more expensive because we are what we think and so we have what we want and the mind would be more logical the contraversions of life when a definite feeling acts in our favor and thus they would fit between our egos making our natures more clairvoyant than the irrational side of living that simply surprises us and makes us disbelieve in the existence of life. , And what would life be like?

I believe that we are at a point of remaking ourselves in the face of all the things that life can properly tell us that we need to do because we would be centered on our desires because our emotions make us believe what we think in how much we feel what we do and so we are our wills that we simply admit as a relativity about the life of our emotions and functions of life in which we can work at will and we will learn to dominate life and so we are what we think and if we are about good thoughts we are happy with life and we will not have disappointments about the realities of everyday life when we master the fear and incapacities that make us suffer at every shelf because the mind of a human being can describe every image of a dream as well as transform a dream into a desire, leaving the penalties aside and in this way we learn to live and control all the emotions that relate to our impulses, whether love or hate, in which we simply tone down the existence of life with just one way of acting and thinking better if making our emotions and emotional fluids positive substances of relaxation and pleasure in which we can admit that we must exchange fear for courage and love for hate and in this way we will find heaven and not fear hell, which simply can be synthetically an evil related circuit to the thought in which we tolerate all desires and will only stop inhibiting ourselves in the face of uncertain pleasures and desires because we will be conquering something that makes us live and thus balance the human mind on such functions of desire that fluidly presents itself over life in us I enjoy certain emotions and achievements that we are certainly controlling in life and so we can live happily.

I want to thank everyone for this extraordinary work that I did with a lot of love and respect so that everyone can know a little about my psychoanalysis and metaphysics that I reveal about a well-applied philosophy that I summarize here in several words of an extraordinary fundamental explanation that will be useful for everyone to see and understand all my reasoning that is always clear for everyone to see and research well a science that deals with the better metaphysics of showing life and its setbacks in a good narration that I wrote for everyone to see here in this valuable text and thank you all very much from the magnificent Edu academy and a big hug from Roberto Barros.

THE RELATIVITIES OF MOLECULES ON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANISM

I want to say that we live in a body that can be divided from an atom into several relationships that we could classify through the study of cells and atoms, a great variety of atomic elements that can be defined in a great property of certain functions that are related to the great organic development by the cells that constitute the human organism, among its most functional relationships of the spirit, such as nuclear chemistry, which begins to exert great behavior among the functions of the organism, which exerts large charges of protons and electrons that vivify each atom in a smaller fraction of an element that was once supposed to be indivisible in a moment and in a short space enters into a great combination as space that transforms and destroys itself giving way to life as a centrifuge and outputs of electrons in a variety and combination between cells and molecules that are shown as a chemical electricity that passes from the spirit to matter, giving chemical processes and vitalizing the organism in a rectilinear movement for all organs and organic systems that we can study these theoretical functions as a physics of thinking and building as an electronic device that in its functions that we can observe in each material element of a computer a great relationship with the motherboard which contains the central processing unit as well as the HD which is the data storage device and the processor which is the integrated circuit capable of processing the operation of data in terms of memory, which is where the operating systems that resemble the organism are stored and we can classify a great virtue among the human body that is preserved through various processings on various chemical functions that are transformed into an atomic body called an atom in that we must preserve the nature of the cells and I want them to study well the molecules that particularly have beautiful constructions on the atoms in which we must deeply study their development and cells in the functioning of the organism that with beautiful studies and thoughts we can create a cell of ions like a pump that emanates energy external to the organism, which can be generalized more clearly about such functions and chemical pulsations from spirit to matter and thus we can better predict diseases about each atom of protons and neutrons in which we can develop electrical bioenergy organic function and I want everyone to research the biochemical reactions of relativities and organic functions and thank you very much and keep a study of the relativities of alchemy and hugs!

THE RELATIVITIES OF INVISIBLE ALCHEMY

Ladies and gentlemen, I come here with an introduction to tell you about the my imaginations that I explain to you as a study of an alchemy that I studied and dream that it could be more generalized to infinity itself or homogenized to the universe that I tell you that scientific magic exists as well as magic being done in a sense of reaching eternity that we never imagined for existing and being on the invisible of things that can become visible over an extensive desire to subsist behind life, making all the transformations in which God may have gone through and transformed the very origin of life itself more visible, and when we talk about transmutation in relativity it would be general because we would be entering into an alchemical process of a more indivisible variety like perhaps a step over god who is omnipotent and has no beginning or end almost as the universe which is infinite over omnipresent things as the man who can understand every detail narrated in this story that things are born from the invisible to the naked eye when there is a general understanding about the relativities of life in which life and death are distinguished on a relativity in which man can create and give life to certain matters remaining as a study for the future of humanity on the scientific criteria that are peacefully based on the laws of god as a study of divine omnipotence on the relativities of alchemy or the alchemy of relativities as a dream and fable that we can value the existence of life over death and death about life for being more living than about all human relationships of man on earth.

I want to talk a little about the atomists of ancient Greece who classified matter as the elements of nature such as: fire, water, earth and air that, mixed in different proportions, would result in different physical-chemical properties as Aristotle's theory shows This composition between the human body we call matter and that we can transmute certain substances from the invisible that will go through an alchemical process to become matter that we call the natural plane in which we can transmute from the spiritual side to the material state.

Atomists in ancient Greece

The atomists, led by Democritus and his teacher Leucippus, thought that matter was made up of tiny and invisible particles, the atoms (A-atom),"Without division". They thought that if we divided and divided again, the process would eventually stop.

For Demcritus, the great variety of materials in nature came from the movements of different types of atoms that, when colliding, formed larger groups, generating different bodies with their own characteristics. Some ideas from Democritus about atoms:

Water: formed by slightly spherical atoms (water drains easily).

Earth: formed by cubic atoms (the earth is stable and solid)

Air: formed by swirling moving atoms (air moves - winds).

Fire: formed by sharp atoms (fire hurts).

Soul: formed by the smoothest, most delicate and most active atoms that exist.

Breathing: it was considered an exchange of atoms, in which new atoms replace used atoms.

Democritus' foundations for atoms took shape over time. Epicurus (341 BC - approximately 270 BC) complemented his ideas by suggesting that there would be a limit to the size of atoms, thus justifying the reason why they are invisible.

But even so, the most defended theory was that of Aristotle, who believed that matter would be made up of elements of nature such as fire, water, earth and air, which when mixed in different proportions, would result in different physical-chemical properties.

In my conception, it is about the criteria of life in which biology is classified into five kingdoms or even more because nature is a set of lives in which we can classify all the kingdoms here to have a logic and transformation of life over death and death over life that in everything and with everything in invisible alchemy we will be able to show as the essence of life the mineral, vegetable, animal and soul kingdom that we will be able to transcribe the quintessential essence of life over an invisible world of transformation and transmutation in which The relativity of alchemy begins with the realms in which we can transmute and make materials live, both gross and dense, which are dense and subtle, which are processed by the soul, which are invisible and pass through the realm of the soul as a complete essence, turning into the fifth pleasure in which we materialize as an atom in the smallest fraction of a substantial element the life in which we can perform an invisible alchemy that will go through a process of transformation between the body, spirit and soul to create a substance, both a natural image mentalized by the mental consciousness at the same time. subconscious state of the human mind that has been transformed into the natural state of matter being both liquid and solid that we can classify some existence transformed into life by invisible alchemy in which which we call the fifth essence.

Living world: presentation of the kingdoms

The modern classification system, which distributes living beings into five major kingdoms — Monera, Protista, Fungi, Metaphyta and Metazoa — was devised by R. H. Whittaker, in 1969. Thus, the known species of living beings are distributed into specific kingdoms, according to certain classification criteria.

The basic classification criteria

To classify living beings into the five great kingdoms, the following criteria were used:

type of cellular organization — defines whether living beings are prokaryotes or eukaryotes, that is, whether they are devoid of or possess a nuclear membrane, nucleolus and membranous organelles in their cells;

number of cells — considers whether living beings are unicellular or multicellular;

type of nutrition — indicates whether the organisms are autotrophs or heterotrophs; This criterion also considers the way in which heterotrophs obtain their food: whether by absorption or ingestion of available organic material.

The five great kingdoms

According to the establishment of the aforementioned classification criteria, the living world was divided into the following kingdoms:

Kingdom Monera — Covers all unicellular and prokaryotic organisms, represented by bacteria and cyanobacteria or cyanobacteria, also known as blue algae.

Kingdom Protista — Comprises unicellular and eukaryotic organisms, such as protozoa and certain algae.

Kingdom Fungi — Comprises all fungi, which can be unicellular or multicellular and are eukaryotic organisms and heterotrophs due to absorption.

Kingdom Plantae or Metaphyta — Covers multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic organisms. This kingdom, also known as the plant kingdom, includes pluricellar algae, bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), pteridophytes (such as ferns and maidenhair), ginnosperms (such as pines and sequoias) and angiosperms ( ipês, lemon trees, beans, grass, etc.).

Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa — Comprises multicellular organisms, eukaryotes and heterotrophs by ingestion. This kingdom encompasses all animals, from porphers to mammals.

Here I leave a great explanation about the beautiful images that pass from a flow of our minds in which we create well through a circumstance of our subconscious and we can, through the alchemy of creation, transmute to give life as the fifth pleasure that we call the fifth essence of life that we will know about this with an atomic study of the atom about life in which we classify as relativities of life about a great and alchemical transformation between the natural elements that became liquid and solid substances about life in a study well focused on alchemy and chemistry in which we build life.

I want to enter a more qualified state in which life is formed by an atom in which its particles constitute life and all the natural elements that pass between the atomic forces of the universe in which we can simplify the search for existence and life simply using each atom of protein, of vitamin in transmutation the most variable liquid and solid atomic constructions in subsistence of life in which we will now show about the superlative atom to all creations:

ءTOMO

The word atom was proposed by the Greek atomist Democritus in 400 BC, to define the smallest constituent particle of matter. However, it is known today that atoms are divisible, but the word continues to be used to designate an organized, very small structure that makes up all types of materials.

The classical atomic model is made up of the sum of scientists' ideas

Rutherford, Bohr and Chadwick, ideas that we will study in our class next. This is made up of a small and heavy central nucleus where two elementary particles called protons and neutrons are contained, and a peripheral portion called the electrosphere, where electrons are fundamental particles of small mass that orbit around the nucleus. Observe the figure below.

Through the figure it can be seen that the radius of the nucleus is much smaller than the total radius of the atom, in real dimensions the radius of the atom can be around 10 thousand to 100 thousand times greater than the radius of the atomic nucleus.

The fundamental particles of the atom, called protons, electrons and neutrons, are very small, but different in mass. The mass of the proton is very close to the mass of the neutron, with the mass of the electron being approximately 1836 times smaller than that of the proton.

Protons have a positive charge, while electrons have a negative charge,

neutrons are devoid of electrical charge.

The fundamental physical characteristics of these particles are given below in relative values.

II. Fundamental Concepts.

atom: extremely small and organized structure that makes up all types of materials

Atomic number: is represented by the symbol Z and determines the total number of protons in s in the nucleus of an atom. Remember that the atom is an electrically

Neutral, therefore the number of protons and electrons are identical for a given atom.

Z = number of protons

Atomic mass number: as we already know, the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Therefore, the atomic mass number (A) is given by the sum of the number of protons and neutrons of that atom, as shown in the formula:

A = p + n or A = Z + n

Chemical element: corresponds to a set of atoms with the same number of protons (atomic number). In nature we can find atoms with different atomic mass numbers, but with the same number of protons, these atoms are called ISTOPOS and constitute a chemical element.

Example:

1H3

1H2 1H3 These atoms have different masses, but they belong to the

hydrogen element.

The hydrogen isotopes represented above can be called: tritium, deuterium and prَtium, respectively.

Representing a chemical element:

ZEA or Z

AE

An element that has 17 protons and 18 neutrons is represented as follows:

17E35

Isotopy – Isobaria – Isotonia

In nature we can find elements or chemical species that have the same number of protons (isotopes), or the same number of masses (isobars), or the same number of neutrons (isotones). Observe the schematic table:

ELEMENT Z = (n°of p+) A (n°P + n°N) N (A – Z)

Isotopy = ¹ ¹

Isobaria ¹ = ¹

Isotonia ¹ ¹ =

Examples:

58Ce140

59Pr140 isobars

19K39

20Ca40 isotones

8O16

8O17 isotopes

Allotropy

Different simple substances that are formed by the same chemical element are defined as allotropic varieties. Always one of the allotropic varieties is the most stable and abundant in nature. The main examples are:

Cdiamond, Cgraphite* and C60 (fullerene)

O2* and O3

Pwhite and Pred *

Srombic* and Smonoclinic

* more stable allotropic form.

III - حons.

They are atoms in electrical imbalance, that is, atoms that have gained or lost

electrons.

Examples:

12Mg0 à 2e- + 12Ca2+ (note that the magnesium atom loses two electrons)

The magnesium atom has 12 protons and 12 electrons.

The magnesium ion has 12 protons and 10 electrons, so its charge is 2+.

7N0 + 3e-à7N3- (note that the nitrogen atom receives 3 electrons)

The nitrogen atom has 7 protons and 7 electrons.

The nitrogen ion has 7 protons and 10 electrons, so its charge is 3.

In my philosophy, everything that God creates with love is constructed with a feeling about the living nature of a being that would be better for you to understand because in him everything is clearer like the sunlight that is showing us on the bright side of the earth. Life is the beautiful things that we cling to that we simply don't touch because it is made of love that is over any void that breaks over the human inability to be happy or love someone in life that is simply not being enlightened before God because they are messages from divine nature that cannot resemble the true being that God made and created over all things in paradise that we could not deceive with the negative uncertainties that insulate life in the face of the soft light of God that is over all deep things and at altitudes that we can someday understand your space and time over our realities that are not so extensive when there is no light from our stimuli that are over any feelings elevated to life that we could not have understood your love and existence in our lives because in God did everything, he created the paradise of the bankrupt and embarrassed people who perverted from evil over the truth that cannot remain silent, invisible over everything that God created on the earth of obstinate and uncertain men of controversial compassions over an unfaithful desire that perhaps a child I would humanitarianly bring this love to be more alive on the electricity that consoles our thoughts and makes us believe that the world is perfect and that we can still be happy and that perhaps we will remain constructively intact under the pretexts of God who made us enlightened by fْria of the teaching love that loves us and makes us love what is good to see and feel pleasure because life would simply be a sounding board in which its rhythm can melody us about all the positive forms and forces of life that have never bent upon the shadows that break behind the light of day trying to forget the fear of darkness that plagues the innocent who are yet to know the world how beautiful and perfect it is because God made you over all the aspects that were not destroyed and may the truth be well of loves that have not been absorbed by god or that any anonymity that could have been prescribed by the word of god as they say that angels are more cautious of staying alive and innate by the transformation of god's existence over mortals who are consumed by madness, farce, emotional illusion that will anger the minds of men who have not yet understood how to simplify their love for life like loving God over all things that are true.

inevitable and together we can always unite because it was God who made you and the stars in the sky with perhaps a wrath that someday we can thank him and ask him for the favor of being faithful to him like a straight arrow without deviation that cannot be ours undeniable nature to the world that can become an illusion to the weakest without love who perhaps can feel that they were made from the flower of paradise that unforgettably we will always find what we are looking for because we simply learn to love and hate to consolidate ourselves over all the aspects of being happy for many years may life remain pulsating and creating certain artifices that someday we will understand its pleasures and everything that God created because we are children of God and we experience the light of life in our eyes and countenances that show us how much we are beautiful and we become strengthened in our memory that we witness our love for life as we pacify on the material planes the seeds that we simply keep in the soul of our thoughts that are completed on the forms and achievements that we achieve in life as a state of time in the occasion of graces that we learn to value the life that plagues us with the foolishness of youth and we see that everything that God created would be perfect because we are likeness of God and in my philosophy I simply want to say that if it was God who made us we are innate or homogeneous that due to the anonymity of affections hidden we could complete ourselves about his love that made us because we would not be alive to be happy about some inferior indifference of his nature that remains for how long without unfavorable expression to the only affection that made us greater than everything we are likeness of love that perhaps we cannot say from the inside out in a few more that is simplified in the divine theory that everything that God created was with love and let us learn from life less or more from its artifacts to value what God did because we would not be so small and big in the hand of God who completed us in his image and love that can never be small over all the hidden affections that ruin the pure realistic compassion of living, loving and being happy because in a few years or perhaps millennia from the depths of our souls we will someday find ourselves free from hell in paradise.

THE ALCHEMY OF THE RELATIVITY OF LIFE

The origin of alchemy is lost in time, being older than the history of humanity. Its true beginning is unknown and shrouded in obscurity and mystery. Thus, its emergence is confused with the origin and evolution of man on Earth. The origin of alchemy is quite uncertain, as there are alchemical reports in several ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Persians, Mesopotamians, Hindus, Chinese and Japanese. However, it is generally considered that its beginnings occurred around the 3rd century BC, in Alexandria. And classified today, we come as a vehicle on various things in life in which we can develop various related purposes as an extensive light on various developments of human capacity on earth as a creative flow to each possibility of life and existence on a great and infinite trajectory of pulsation over life how things can identify themselves over love and over hate in which everything is alchemy as alchemy for different things in which a combined and pacified relationship is absorbed between both things with human nature and all existence of life in which we can transmute different things and transform into something living or imaginary on a point of restoration between the spirit as nuclear chemistry and matters as atomic nuclei that we see in everything and through everything we transcribe and perfect ourselves on a great and extraordinary alchemy relatively imposed on life being used as functions of creation over any existence for the material man who sees life more prone to death as for the spatial man who sees life stencil over all nature in which we can classify ourselves superlatively over the natural elements as substances of creation being used in each atom as matter of the fifth essence, remaining above all in the third plane in which we can see how life began taking into account its relativities such as that of the primordial atom as a result of the relationships and existences of god and the devil over creation perhaps from heaven and hell standing over good and evil as the law of the entire existence of life and its unwary straining was transformed and created, the great transformation of life was generated in which small fractions of atoms were drastically concentrated in which they combined about a great existence about a great explosion that was formed from seminal particles on certain atomic and chemical elements about a relationship between radioactivity, electricity and magnetism that when alchemy formed from the particles into atoms life with each element of nature created and contained about four existence in which the na Nature was classified and is classified as water, air, earth and fire in which we can say that life and planets were created, like the earth that was formed between the four elements that entered into alchemical transformations that we can also classify ourselves among them by a body called the atomic nucleus that naturally underwent a transformation of atomic and nuclear development that we have life on earth almost as a fifth pleasure with the atom, protons and neutrons combined and formed into an atomic nucleus that is us who We also have water, air, fire and earth as related elements and as generators of our existences of life being created on earth as oxygen, blood, body, combustion and we are human beings who can also classify ourselves as earthly beings or spatial ones in which we take as matter the spirit and soul of the things we inhabit and that we can transmute ourselves between a cycle of both the earth and the universe, becoming established on a relativity of universal nature in which through an alchemy we homogenize ourselves on a deeper relativity in which we can transform ourselves from dense to subtle and from subtle to dense, which we mean from chin and yang, which is from heaven and earth, which I mean from bottom to top and from top to bottom, leaving matter as a spiritual being, the core transmutable by energy of the spirit that is nuclear chemistry that is established on the sidereal planes of the universe when man can perhaps understand its transformation and combination that atoms enter into subtle transformations and combinations passing from the dense that is matter as an atomic nucleus to the spirit that is the nuclear chemistry and the soul, the subtle electricity that will be combined under the same magnetic and subtle relationship of the universe, making the matter more static, over an alchemy more related to the seventh sense, staying over the quintessence of life in which we call the relativity of life, where they are formalized and all the atomic elements of life were formed, forming a living and statically developed being on the planes of universal nature.

When we talk about transmutation in relativity it would be general because we would be entering into an alchemical process of a more indivisible variety like perhaps a step over god who is omnipotent and has no beginning or end almost as much as the universe who is infinite over omnipresent things as man who can understand every detail narrated in this story that things are born from the invisible to the naked eye when there is a general understanding about the relativities of life in which life and death are distinguished on a relativity in which man can create and give life upon certain matters remaining as a study for the future of humanity on the scientific criteria that are peacefully based on the laws of God as a study of divine omnipotence on the relativities of alchemy or the alchemy of relativities as a dream and fable that we can value the existence of life over death and death over life for being more living over all human relationships of man on earth.

CELLS

Cells are the structural and functional units that make up all living beings. The only living beings that do not have cells are viruses.

All cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material.

Cells are the structural and functional units of living beings. All living beings are made up of cells, with the exception of viruses, which are cellular organisms. Some organisms are made up of a single cell (unicellular beings), others, in turn, are made up of several cells (multicellular beings).

Cells perform different functions and have some basic parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material, which may or may not be delimited by a nuclear envelope. Cells can be classified into two large groups: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Humans have eukaryotic cells.

Read more: Meiosis and mitosis – two cell reproduction processes

Summary about cells

Cell is the structural and functional unit of living beings.

Viruses are acellular organisms.

There are different types of cells, which perform different functions.

All cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells can be divided into plant and animal cells.

Plant cells have a cell wall, central vacuole and plastids, structures absent in animal cells.

What are cells?

Cells are the structural and functional units of living beings. They are called structural units, as they form the body of living beings. Imagine, for example, a large wall. This wall is made up of small structures, bricks. Each brick would be a cell, which, united with the others, helps to form a plural organism.

ricellular (living being made up of more than one cell).

Furthermore, in unicellular organisms, the cell represents the entire organism. In addition to being structural, they are functional units of living beings, and are so called because they are living units, capable of producing energy and reproducing, for example.

The term cell was coined in 1665 by Robert Hooke. Cell comes from the Latin, cellula, which means “small cell”. Hooke proposed this term because he observed a section of cork under the microscope and found only dead cells. Therefore, he only verified the presence of the cell wall of these structures and, therefore, found such a structure similar to a cell.

Where do we find cells?

All living beings are made up of cells, with the exception of viruses. They are found forming the body of organisms. Some living beings, such as bacteria and protozoa, have a body made up of just a single cell. Other organisms, however, are multicellular, being made up of several cells. In some multicellular organisms, cells are grouped into tissues, which constitute organs, which are grouped into systems.

What are the functions of cells?

There are different cell types, and each one performs a different function.

There are different types of cells, each adapted to a certain function. As mentioned, in some organisms, such as protozoa and bacteria, cells represent the entire living being, since these beings are unicellular. In this case, they perform all the functions responsible for their survival.

In multicellular organisms, in turn, there are specialized cells that play different roles. Leukocytes, for example, are cells found in our body that act to protect the body against disease-causing agents. Neurons are cells that act to ensure the propagation of nerve impulses. Red blood cells, in turn, ensure the transport of oxygen throughout the body.

Read more: Stem cells – they are capable of transforming into any cell and a hope for medicine

Basic parts of a cell

Cells are small, but very complex structures. In general, we can say that all cells have three basic components: the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm and the genetic material.

Plasma membrane: is a structure formed by a bilayer of lipid molecules with several proteins inserted. It surrounds the entire cell, separating and protecting all its components from the external environment. The membrane has the ability to select what enters and leaves the cell. Due to this function, we say that it has selective permeability.

Cytoplasm: in prokaryotic cells, corresponds to the entire internal region of the cell. In eukaryotic cells, in turn, the cytoplasm corresponds to the region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope and is the place where cytoplasmic organelles are present. Several important chemical reactions occur in it in eukaryotic cells.

Genetic material: contains the information that determines the characteristics of a living being. In eukaryotic cells, most of the genetic material is contained in the nucleus, which is surrounded by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope. In prokaryotic cells, in turn, there is no nuclear envelope delimiting the genetic material.

Read also: DNA – responsible for transmitting all genetic information to daughter cells

Classification of cells

Prokaryotic cells do not have a defined nucleus, unlike eukaryotic cells.

Cells can be classified into two basic groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells are characterized by not having a defined nucleus. In these cells, the genetic material is not delimited by the nuclear envelope. Furthermore, in prokaryotic cells, there is no presence of membranous organelles (small structures present in the cytoplasm that perform different functions within the cell, such as intracellular digestion and energy production). Ribosomes, structures responsible for protein synthesis, are present. As an example of organisms that have prokaryotic cells, we have bacteria and cyanobacteria.

Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells are those that have a true nucleus, with the genetic material surrounded by a nuclear envelope. In these cells, membranous organelles are also observed, such as mitochondria, Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum. As in prokaryotic cells, the presence of ribosomes is observed. Examples of organisms that have eukaryotic cells are animals, plants, protozoa, algae and fungi.

Eukaryotic cells can be grouped into two types: plant cells and animal cells. Plant cells differ from animal cells due to the presence of three structures: cell wall, central vacuole and plastids.

The cell wall of Plant cells are mainly made up of cellulose and are located external to the plasma membrane. The cell wall provides greater resistance to the plant cell. The central vacuole is an organelle that has different functions, such as ensuring the maintenance of the cell's pH and storing substances. Finally, we have plastids, the best known type being the chloroplast, which is related to photosynthesis.

Video lesson on eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

By Vanessa Sardinha dos Santos

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

What is a molecule?

Carolina Batista Carolina Batista Chemistry Teacher

A molecule is a set of atoms, the same or different, united by covalent bonds.

These chemical species are electrically neutral and represent the forming unit of a substance.

There are simple molecules, such as oxygen (O2) in the air we breathe. However, there are also complex compounds, such as buckyballs (60 carbon atoms linked together in a sphere shape), which are the largest molecules ever found in space.

Study of the molecule

The covalent bond in a molecule corresponds to the sharing of electrons, generally between non-metallic elements.

See the water molecule as an example of a simple compound.

water molecules

Water molecules (H2O)

When we look at a glass of water, we have no idea that this substance is made up of several H2O molecules. This formula indicates that water is composed of 3 atoms: two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, which are sharing electrons with each other.

Sugar, which we use to sweeten juices and make cakes, is also made up of molecules. The unit that forms sugar is sucrose.

sucrose molecule

Sucrose molecule (C12H22O11)

This molecule is much more complex, as there are 45 linked atoms. It is made up of: 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms and 11 oxygen atoms.

Molecules are structures of known molecular mass, but there are also macromolecules, which are "giant structures" formed by so many atoms that their composition can be undefined. An example of this type is diamond, a macromolecule formed by countless carbon atoms in a covalent network.

See also: Simple and compound substances

covalent bond

A covalent chemical bond is established between two atoms when they share their outermost (valence) electrons. Molecules can have two types of bonds:

Molecular covalent bond: the pair of electrons between the two bonding atoms is shared.

Covalent bond in the chlorine molecule (Cl2)

Coordinated covalent bond (dative): the shared electrons come from only one of the atoms involved.

Coordinated covalent bond in ammonium (NH4)

See also: Covalent Bond

Molecular geometry

When a molecule is formed, the atoms are positioned in different ways, so that the spatial arrangement is more stable. Therefore, the compounds have different geometries.

See below some of the geometries that molecules can present.

Molecular geometry

LinearAngularTriangular

Ex: BeH2

Ex: SO2

Ex: BeF3

PyramidalTetrahedralOctahedral

Ex: NH3

Ex: CH4

Ex: SF6

See also: Molecular Geometry: what it is, types, examples and theory

Polar and nonpolar molecules

Molecules are classified according to polarity.

Nonpolar molecules: there is no difference in electronegativity between the atoms.

Nitrogen (N2)Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Nitrogen (N2) is a nonpolar molecule because it is formed by the same chemical element and, therefore, there is no difference in electronegativity. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is nonpolar due to its linear geometry, which stabilizes the attraction of oxygen to electrons.

Polar molecules: there is a difference in electronegativity between the atoms, with a positive pole and a negative pole.

Water (H2O)Ammonia (NH3)

In both examples, we see that the central atoms, oxygen and nitrogen, have unpaired pairs of electrons that form electronic clouds. As there are more electron clouds around the central atoms than established chemical bonds, the molecules are polar.

See also: Polar and nonpolar molecules

Examples of molecules

SubstanceCharacteristicsMoleculeFormula

HydrogenFuel and abundant in the Earth's crust.

H2

OxygenIndispensable for breathing and participates in several chemical reactions

O2

SulfurYellow powder used to make dyes.

S8

Carbon dioxideUsed in fire extinguishers and refrigerants.

CO2

Ethanol/common alcohol used as fuel and in perfumes.

C2H6O

See also: Molecular Formula

Be sure to check out these texts on topics related to what you just learned:

Biomolecules

Organic compounds

Molecular mass

Octet Rule

Chemical Bonds

Polarity of Connections

Intermolecular Forces

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Carolina Batista

Bachelor's degree in Technological and Industrial Chemistry from the Federal University of Alagoas (2018) and Technical and m Chemistry from the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Pernambuco.

Brazil School

Brazil School

HOME BIOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY

Physiology

Physiology is the part of Biology focused on the study of the functions and activities carried out by each structure that makes up a living being.

Physiology is the branch of Biology dedicated to understanding the functioning of an organism, being responsible for unveiling all the physical and chemical processes involved in maintaining life. Studying the physiology of living beings is extremely important, as it is not enough to know, for example, which are the organs that make up an organism, it is essential to understand their entire functioning and the activities carried out by each of these structures.

To understand Physiology it is necessary to have basic knowledge of various areas of Biology, such as Anatomy, Morphology, Cellular Biology, Biochemistry, Ecology and Biophysics. This is necessary, as all these areas are interconnected, and the functioning of an organism is related to processes that occur at various levels of organization.

In Physiology, we study how the organism works. Blood circulation is one of the topics covered in this area.

→ Human physiology

Human physiology is concerned with understanding how the human body works, thus integrating chemical, physical and, of course, anatomical knowledge. This area studies everything from cells to the systems that make up the body. Among the processes studied in this area, we can mention digestion, excretion, circulation and respiration.

In human physiology, the functioning of the human body is studied.

When we understand human physiology, we understand the correct functioning of the organism and, as a result, it becomes easier to understand changes in this functioning and create methods that return the body to balance. We can conclude, therefore, that this area is extremely important in the field of medicine.

Also read the text Human body to learn more about the cells, tissues, organs and systems that make up our organism.

→ Plant physiology

Plant physiology is the part of Botany that studies all the processes that occur in a plant, thus allowing the understanding of how plants work. In this area, all chemical and physical events that occur in the plant and guarantee its growth and development are analyzed.

Photosynthesis is one of the topics covered in plant physiology.

Among the phenomena studied in plant physiology, we can highlight photosynthesis, respiration, the action of plant hormones, the movement of water and nutrients through the plant's body and plant movements.

Read also: Botanical concepts

→ History of Physiology

The study of physiology began in Greece around 2500 years ago. The term physiology comes from the Greek words ph‎sis and logos, which together literally mean “knowledge of nature”.

One of the most influential figures in the field of ancient physiology was Claudius Galen (129-200 AD), a physician known for treating gladiators. Galen carried out several works with animals and followed a doctrine known as the “four humors”. This doctrine was based on the idea that the body was made up of four different fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. According to this doctor, the heart, liver and brain were the main organs of the human body.

Another figure worth highlighting is Andreas Versalius (1514-1564), who published, in 1543, the work entitled De Humani Corporis Fabrica. This work became known as a major milestone in both the study of anatomy and modern physiology, initiating a new way of understanding how the body works.

Another study that deserves to be highlighted is that of William Harvey (1578-1657). He proposed the theory that blood circulated throughout the body thanks to the pumping provided by the heart. Until that moment, the most accepted theory stated that blood was constantly produced, and not that it circulated throughout the body. Harvey's work, without a doubt, was fundamental to the understanding of several other physiological processes.

The greatest advances in this area of ​​Biology occurred, however, throughout the 19th century, especially in Germany and France. At this time, there was an understanding of cell theory and the development of experimental physiology. In the latter case, we must highlight the works of Claude Bernard, who is considered the father of contemporary experimental physiology and highlighted the importance of experimentation.

In the 20th century, several processes were discovered, and the understanding of biochemistry and molecular biology was fundamental for deepening knowledge in physiology. With technological advances, this area continues to grow and many processes are yet to be understood.

By Ma. Vanessa dos Santos

Would you like to reference this text in a school or academic work? Look:

SANTOS, Vanessa Sardinha dos. "Physiology

deoaulas

Video 1

Video 2

Video 3

List of exercises

Exercise 1

In the history of the study of Physiology, we know that several people were essential to the development of this branch of Biology. One of the most influential was a doctor who treated gladiators and said that the body was made up of four fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Analyze the following alternatives and mark the name of this important doctor:

a) Claudius Galen

b) Andreas Vesalius

c) William Harvey

d) Claude Bernard

e) Robert Hooke

Exercise 2

Today we all know that blood circulates through the body thanks to the pumping of the heart, however, before, it was accepted the idea that blood was constantly produced by the body. The researcher who first proposed this idea of ​​pumping blood through the heart was

a) Claudius Galen

b) Andreas Vesalius

c) William Harvey

d) Claude Bernard

e) Robert Hooke

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I would like to thank you with great pleasure for this work carried out here at the Edu academy, which will help everyone to better understand and study the functions and relativities that can be developed in our organism and organic system. Thank you all very much and a big hug!

THE WORLD AND THE INDIVISI MIND VEL BEYOND LIFE

I simply show here a great theory that I studied a little in depth with some research that I have always prescribed life and its relationships with nature to God and how we can scientifically prescribe the birth of God and how we should look better at the theurgical side of life where by a great study of the cosmos of the human mind we will be able to prescribe a great mystery of the mind with the being that creates certain projections that we will be able to understand the old history of the world and how everything originated giving us real knowledge about a science of life that we will I present here through imagination the cosmic and magnetic effects of the mind and I want everyone to research this area so that we can understand the true construction of the human being with life and I thank you all for good work.

I want to express a little about theurgy that we can rarely understand, that it is a wonderful celestial art that has angels even God who made man in his image and likeness and that we can unravel some mysteries that I have been studying about the strength of the mind that creates and makes miracles about human beings who are not omnipotent and are omnipresent and that we can reach the key of life about mortals who are rarely called and do not know the relativity of life of mental sciences that can attract how to create something related to life that we can study well in depth its strengths and particularities with man and his mind that feels and thinks every second about a profound existence of building and destroying that we can unveil several mysteries in life in which we must study about the cosmos and the atomic creation of each atom that is builds on the electricity of the soul and we are going to talk a little about personal magnetism that surrounds us and builds us by a characteristic of completing us about any relationship with nature that can favor us such creations with human nature and I want to say with beautiful words that we can develop theurgy with our mentalizations about the mind and the will that is conceived by training the mind with our eyes closed that we see and discover the mental cosmos that is called space and when we identify with the feelings the soul identifies with the mind and we achieve create something perhaps related to life with beautiful images and just a little practice.

I believe that we are trying to find a more or less physical explanation to submit to a great idea and explanation about God who is said to be omnipotent and that he himself was born on an artifact that we merely cannot distinguish his particularities with life and that there is a more logical purpose about god and his creation with nature and the universe that may have originated from nothing towards everything in which we can well say that his existence is focused on the invisible world that can perhaps be called indivisible that between both conceptions his creation may have originated from lights that this case is about the setbacks of the sacred bible that god was born and gave life to the earth and created living beings with everything being created supernaturally from the quintessential essence of life that Aristotle (384 b.c.-322 a.c) The ethereal element that makes up the celestial spheres, distinct in its almost immateriality from the four natural properties. (earth, water, air, fire) that constitute the dense bodies in the sublunary world, ether.

However we can understand about the elemental formation that God could have made life through nuclear nature, under a circumstance in the universe that he was formed among perhaps a more eccentric nature and through all things he was made in his likeness that we could reach a conclusion that he serious homogeneous to the universe that on the relativities of life everything could have been created on great atomic elemental transformations that we can understand almost the origin of the universe as the big bang that can be on a great elemental variety with the nature in which we can here transcribe another story that would take us to the frontiers of the unknown that is almost unknown as the existence that transports us and makes us develop our functions on a trace of the relativities of life in which we can talk about an invisible alchemy that could have come from nothing to life as to life arrived so much at nothing that perhaps from nothing serious death that we relatively suspect is the subtle life to the universe that leads us to certain natures that everything can become light or darkness as the universe that does not stop its rhythm on the existence of build and destroy to begin again and so life would be simply about its modalities and relationship with the nature that makes us up and gave us life.

Now I want to reach an empty space that perhaps I believe we cannot see and that would simply be the paradise that we can understand about its atoms and cosmological aspects where nature teaches us to prescribe life over each atom and hidden existence and that everything would perhaps remain in an empty space where nature would be uncultivable and indivisible where we could unveil another world about perhaps certain ironies created by a physical and elementary concept of life where we look with our eyes closed at the mental cosmos and identify with a more subtle nature as perhaps the birth of god on life that could be this magnificent world in our omnipresent eyes that would be fictionalized on a cosmic relativity of the life of human beings in which we can understand that we are a small universe because we are in the likeness of god and can over everything we exists in it and everything can happen and thus nature is created in a being that by this nature we distinguish life and its existence with man and the universe.

Let's talk about certain creations, both natural and artificial of the mind, that can create certain images on an imagination of the mind that projects an image mentalized by us who think such things and create different things on the subtle force of the soul. that by feeling the subconscious of the human mind creates a form that is supposed to be like a flow of image that would transform into an image like an atomic nucleus that we can simply somewhat see its formation and creation in the form of the imagination that could both be liquid or solid that lies between the natural or artificial invisible planes that are completed over a cadence metallized by the imagination that we can see its cosmological aspect among the subtle energy of the soul generated by the nuclear chemistry of the spirit making each atom and atomic effect staying on the elements of photons to then be processed by subtle electricity passing and returning to the normal state of consciousness that perhaps we enter a state of alpha to be projected the image on a timed effect of the soul and I say that the soul has its particularities of creating some existence that in the higher planes from the spirit everything becomes alive and life is created on the electricity and chemistry of the spirit, passing to the subtle state of the soul on charges of electrons and leaks to the subtle state of the soul where we see an immense void over the mind that finds itself possession of emotions and creations that on the spatial planes we could call atomic elements that in physics we call nuclear and magnetic that on the relationships between body and soul everything can develop into perhaps a more dynamic world due to the magnanimous relativity of the soul together with the spirit everything is reaction and creation and we can establish a fiction about the strength of the mind that operates and performs miracles.

Leaving everything to a mental cosmic imagination that we can Prescribe the existence of God and life and then we describe several ways of creating something related to life with a more indivisible alchemy over a great gateway of entry and exit of the holy spirit that can be develops on an extraordinary clairvoyant point of the soul that enters into atomic elemental combination and projection that the mind conceives certain images through the force of thought that creates something that we dream and think and thus serious an alchemical transformation of the spirit into soul that transmutes into mind by the force of consciousness the creation of a life, a matter that may perhaps have life and so on originated and created the life of anything from the mind to the mental space in a state of time and space making life something relatively created that of this importance was in nothing and consequently life was created on anything that was made to sprout from nothing through a more intimate reactivity of man with the mental universe and nature revealed to him its resistance through which everything can conceive life on him. a creation and relationship with the mind of the human being and thus a creation was made in life and perhaps God's plans were known through a great and valuable imagination of man and the mind that we can create the four elements by their own continuous strength something of heat and (Water, Air, Earth and Fire).

And so we apprehend the perhaps invisible alchemy that would be called out of nothing towards the immaterial planes if we establish certain creations strolling and transmuting themselves to the dense state over perhaps an imaginary concentration of man passing to machines over a great concentration of electron charges, protons and neutrons that when creating a matter or a body that depending on the cosmic formation and intention of man on nature that would dwell on various metaphysics and chemistry that would remain in any substances, both liquid and solid in creations that man might someday will unravel its mysteries and thus cosmology will develop on various physical and chemical aspects that in the end proved and told us the true creation of God on life based on a great science of studying the birth or construction of life, making life more static and the most developed human being along with the mind that feels , one creates and sees all construction and relativity that may be contained in nature and man.

All of this is called theurgy where man has an understanding of certain sciences and the philosophy of: (physics, quantum physics, biology, biochemistry, cosmology).

Where we can dedicate ourselves body and soul to the study of the mind including (Body, spirit and soul)

I believe that we should not consciously doubt God and bow down to the entire story of the Bible because we have simplified and are perhaps learning to understand about God and the entire creation and existence of life in which we can develop great relativities about life and build something real and something that helps us live, know and achieve life better.

I don't want to disbelieve in god nor to overcome him because I think what I want to explain is indispensable in comparison to god because god is god and I'm just trying to understand his creation with life and develop the best theory about life and know his creation in which we can progress towards life and the biological development of humanity and that it is much better and that all technology develops over a great system over everything in life and thus we will live well developed and matured for the progress of life and that this science is studied well and thank you all and we will show about this synthesis a great form of power generated by the force of the mind called the power of the subconscious that here I speak of a great scientist and psychologist that we can rarely believe in the valuable force of the mind and its more than related purposes as well theurgy that I speak consciously about its dynamics and natural relationships with the human being that develops in their consciousness the inner strength that we have and do not know and we can develop the holy spirit as a transformer of our lives and conquer other paths in which we learn to use strength of the mind over our creations certain images and anything both material and spiritual passing from their subtle state of the soul by the chemical force of the spirit that develops in matter when it transforms intensely over the forces and forms of nature and everything becomes visible to the eye naked and something relative to life can be created by the atomic and chemical forces that are transferred from the mind to the spirit, passing to the atomic nucleus which is matter and in the mere relativities of man with god, the cosmic universe everything becomes life in a smaller fraction and combination of forces of electrons and exits and centrifuges of escapes that atomically created a life on a transformation and transmutation of the soul on a chemical function of the spirit in exits and discharges of electrons, protons, neutrons and photons that combined and reached each other the light of life called the holy spirit in an atom in the smallest fraction of an element that deep down generated life and gave consistency to the mind that developed both the power of the mind and theurgy over the soul which is subtle energy and the spirit is the one who gives life and is the life of all things and is in circumstance with the matter that is the atomic nucleus and everything is combined by the force of all the functions and relativities of life.

The Power of the Subconscious

Bestseller by famous writer Dr Joseph Murphy.

The Power of your Subconscious Mind (original title in English: The Power of your Subconscious Mind) is a book authored by Dr. Joseph Murphy.

The book, one of the first and most famous books on mentalism, states that there is a power within each of us and this power is activated by thought. Dr. Murphy demonstrates a certain influence in his work, with Jungian psychology, particularly the ideas of synchronicity and the collective unconscious.

Without a doubt one of the best and most popular self-help books ever written, The Power of the Subconscious has helped millions of people achieve great goals just by changing the way they think. The revolutionary techniques described by Dr. Murphy are based on a simple and practical principle: if you believe in something without restrictions and make a picture of it in your mind, you remove the subconscious obstacles to making your desire come true. Thus, anyone can turn what they believe into reality. With the description of true success stories, The Power of the Subconscious is a guide to unleashing the power of the mind that reveals secrets to improving a marriage, overcoming fears, eliminating harmful habits, money and personal happiness.

Murphy defends the thesis that the subconscious mind, upon accepting an idea, immediately begins to put it into practice through supernatural means. In this way, to achieve success and success it is only necessary to get the subconscious mind to accept the idea of ​​success, success, health, tranquility or the social position that you desire. However, according to Murphy, the subconscious mind accepts everything that is suggested to it vigorously and constantly, even if it is false, causing unfavorable results. In this way, he suggests that people use autosuggestion, especially during the moments before sleeping, through prayers addressed to the universal mind of God, when the conscious mind is more passive, making the subconscious more receptive. This way, the conscious mind will not resist the ideas that want to be impressed on the subconscious mind.

I want to say that on the planes of the mind we fully reach the high esteem that drives us to uncover and win by the continuous strength of the mind as I spoke about theurgy that seriously developed into a discovery and control of the mind that when we admit everything as something greater and better everything and all things are created and become real because our conscious and subconscious minds enter a full state of transformation in which the holy spirit develops, which serious in chemistry the nuclear chemistry that develops on the chemical functions of the spirit and passes to the atomic nucleus which is the matter to combine and create lives over everything and every system of the organism as well as the mind that enters into cyclone with the soul and creates something that we seek about our creations, desires and activities and so on. it is the power of the subconscious that we can use on our mental systems and combine with the plans of the soul and spirit that passes electricity to matter which is the atom and becomes sultil electricity which is the soul creating a life on a transformation and creation of the mind that predominates and enters a positive state between charges of electrons, neutrons, protons and photons that would be an image created by the mind reaching the subconscious and formalizing itself into a relativity with the chemical functions of the spirit in subtle effect of the soul and transforming, combining and creating itself and thus we find ourselves on the planes of consciousness and learn to know life and its resonances as well as the universe that dances on great developments of construction and destruction and thus walks the fullest nature of life and everything is recreated on the planes of the mind as to the great universe and we complete life and create and identify with the nature of both god and the universe on the atomic planes of mind, spirit, body and soul as a human transformation and creation on a theurgy and the mental power of creation.

I want to thank everyone for this valuable work and thank you very much!

POLTERGEIST FLUIDS ON MIND STRENGTH

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind that we can call Super Poltergeist energy that enters into emotional combination and function causing an extraordinary transformation of a thought in another that through the action of the spirit that we call nuclear chemistry we can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisibly we can with all the positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less that we could find love as the sky us bringing good memories that we could develop large amounts of proteins, mineral salts and vitamins through cells that are supposed to act on humans with an excellent food chain, with the organism being well controlled in terms of metabolism and the chemical process in the cells that would develop as carbohydrate base like glucose and the brain specifically consumes 5.6 milligrams of glucose for every 100 grams of brain tissue per minute, according to Ramَn de Cangas, from the Spanish Academy of Dietary Nutrition., And I want to talk about what is good for strengthening the brain?

The seven foods that boost the brain

• 1) Red fruits. These delicious fruits are rich in compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action and, therefore, protect our brain against damage caused by aging. ...

• 2) Peanuts. ...

• 3) Dark leaves. ...

• 4) Saffron (or turmeric) ...

• 5) Yogurt and kefir. ...

• 6) Nuts. ...

• 7) Fish. ...

And here we can define several proteins and their functions in the emotional fluid and there are 5 foods that help with mental health that we will classify here as the best foods, which are:

• Semisweet chocolate. Classic food when it comes to pleasure. ...

• Fish. ...

• Whole grains. ...

• Natural yogurt. ...

• Turmeric.

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that starts to develop when we are in a good mood, in which we have a brilliant food chain that makes us function in relation to the emotional fluids in which we can relax all the imperfections of life that through the good circumstances of love we will be able to develop a good mental function that brings us happiness since the organism is well structured on a chemical reaction of the spirit on the soul in which we could talk about psychology in which we would be surprised by the good manner and education of identifying with the will and we will talk about the ego that makes us both happy and sad and thus the human mind develops in a discipline of flow over the organism a wide variety of emotions that we can trigger a good emotion such as a feeling of love or a feeling of hate that basically we can also admit it in the reaction of thought that we would be more surprised as an imagination or act and effect of feeling any transformations on the mind that feels and acts through the senses than we could say that the five human senses, responsible for capturing information from the environment, are vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Humans have five traditionally known senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch that we can relate to them and all material manifestations are classified with the relativity and chemical function of the spirit that governs and gives life to creation for the soul that It makes perfect sense to create and project itself into life and give us the light that we call emotional fluid that in mere circumstances the mind would be and it is a generator of energy that passes information to the body and the mind controls its emotions, both positive and negative. and thus we have an atomic nucleus that thinks and feels all the relativities of life and develops both love and hate reactions because the mind projects itself onto our fantasies that through the actions of optimism that everything can become reality and the ego is transformed in health when well-being is conceived causing a fluid effect on the celebratory emotions that drive us to feel both love when we are blessed and hate when we are dead and thus the chemical functions of the organism are transformed into mental reactions that give us makes us love or hate and turns to nature, it reveals and transforms us on various issues relatively in reaction to life and everything is transformed into something supposedly creative that makes life work and so the mind feels and reacts when it thinks and if creates something from our wills and everything is life and reaction of struggle over our emotional wills and I want to say that we can develop the side of both matter and spirit because the mind operates and performs miracles and we are what we think and feel depending on our valuable emotions which can be constructions or destructions, remaining in each vibrational chain as a set of ideas, both positive and negative, and so it really is a mind and the cosmos reacts formatively to its relationships with the nature of life and we can develop the spiritual side as well as the material side in which we call your vibrations and mental contractions about great secondary effects of the mind on your ideas and dreams and we are human beings who learn to love and hate on a vibrational cycle of certain impulses, both positive and negative and thus project our emotions onto a given moment of reaction or destruction that we may be upset by a bad idea or transformed by a good will and thus be life a logical and relative concept of construction and destruction on the mind and its emotions that would be on a good food classification that provides us diverse pleasures as our egos make us gain or lose due to variety and sentimental transformation in which thought is more favorable the bases and emotions of both love and hate and so we are perfect or we become dependent on life and its realities consume our nerves and they depress us and want to make us know different things and we find life abstract and we fall into its modalities and we learn to live and that is what a human mind would be like that feels and thinks all the shades of life and so we stay day to day and become we malice about our dreams and desires and that they do not fit into fantasies and we will always be relative to the will that makes us act on life and we come face to face with our emotions and we will search deep within the soul for an explanation for being alive and learning to live and our minds always transforming us into something superlative to life or indifferent that we can identify with reality and we can admit that we are flowing on dreams and desires and that life is a school of habits and created by will and that we just feel all effects and life would be an emotional set of diverse ideas that we simply touch and react with their guidelines and we can find love or hate for a matter of our wills or socialist means that surprises us and that makes us seek the realities of all the facts and we want the best life and we always archive our mind that makes us live the best and worst moments of our lives and we can live happily depending on our health and social well-being and we will remain intact to the negative murmurs of life's inabilities and we just accept realities oppressing us a little because our emotions rehabilitate us to want to know the world up close and we fall into the decadence of life and living would be better in our ways in which we can feel more pleasure about life and our emotions perhaps keep us alive for the life that makes us understand its reactions and so that we can fight against despair as a more real fight and work and good emotional functioning and so that the human mind is a set relatively supposed to before, indivisible moment and short space as an atom in the smallest fraction of an element that drives us and makes us live and so would the mind be a small universe that simply feels and makes us live through its emotions that simply give us life and the desire to know the world in which we can admit that we are having the best and worst moments of our lives and We can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisible moment we can with all positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less that we could find something better in our lives and I want to emphasize a good understanding with everyone about extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit, passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and mineral salts, the cells are transformed into emergent organism giving emotional functions on the organism transforming emotions on a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being is led to various transformations in dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that take place in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation to the human mind that we can call Super Poltergeist energy that comes into combination and emotional function causing an extraordinary transformation of one thought into another through the action of the spirit which we call nuclear chemistry we can observe the subtle movements of the soul that supposedly once and indivisibly we can with all positive and negative circumstances that are equivalent to more or less that we could find love as well as heaven or hell in which everything can be a reaction of fight in contradiction of our emotions that oppress us and give us pleasure in that our feelings we are aware of our wills as well as on earth and in the heavens and we should not oppress ourselves when we know where we want to do the best for ourselves because our emotions would always make us more expensive our realities because we are what we think and thus we have what we want and the mind would be more logical. It simply surprises us and makes us disbelieve in the existence of life. And what would life be like?

I believe that we are at a point of remaking ourselves in the face of all the things that life can properly tell us that we need to do because we would be centered on our desires because our emotions make us believe that we think about how much we feel about what we do and so we are our wills that we simply admit as a relativity over the life of our emotions and functions of life in which we can work at will and we will learn to dominate life and so we are what we think and if we are on good thoughts we are happy with life and we will not have disappointments about the realities of everyday life when we master the fear and incapacities that make us suffer at every shelf because the mind of a being human can describe every image of a dream and can also transform a dream into a desire, leaving the penalties aside and thus we learn to live and control all the emotions that relate to our impulses, whether love or hate, in which we simply tone down the existence of life with just one way of acting and thinking better, making our emotions and emotional fluids positive substances of relaxation and pleasure in which we can admit that we must exchange fear for courage and love for hate and in this way we will find heaven and not fear the Hell, it could simply be synthetically an evil circuit related to thought in which we tolerate all desires and will simply stop inhibiting ourselves in the face of uncertain pleasures and desires because we will be achieving something that makes us live and thus balance the human mind on such functions of the desire that fluidly presents itself over life, we enjoy certain emotions and achievements that we are certainly controlling life and so we can live happily.

I want to thank everyone for this unforgettable research that I carried out on a work and a great explanation about Poltergeist fluids about the strength of the mind in which I unfold a great formality of a very fine concept and related to the good understanding of thinking and acting on the mind and which will serve as support for everyone to know how to achieve the best leap forward in life in which we total a psychological effect of our ideas and desires that we simply must believe in the truth and forget the lie and that the mind operates and performs miracles in our lives and We are what we think and we simply put aside the uncertainties that prevent us from living and being happy. Thanks!

PSYCHOANALYSIS OF EMOTIONAL AND MORAL FLUID

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind.

In the theory of the soul ('psyche') created by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939, Austrian neurologist).

Therapeutic method created by S. Freud, used in cases of neurosis and psychosis, which essentially consists of the interpretation, by a psychoanalyst, of the unconscious contents of an individual's words, actions and imaginary productions, based on free associations and transference.

I believe that we are going through a great transformation in which the mind can respond to a state more related to the celebratory functions than we can perform a career or a gesture by any part of the consciousness that resulting from the chemical transformations the organism retains itself to take various forms that makes the human being conduct himself or obstruct his functions to develop a thought that, due to the circumstances of the soul generated by the chemical transformation of the spirit, which in its nuclear periphery, passing into the liquid state of matter, everything reacts and transforms into a living thought that gives us the chance to think and act through the senses when we can achieve something substantial through the five senses, which are related to the perception of the internal and external environment, are smell, taste, vision, hearing and touch. The internal and external environment provide a wide variety of sensations, which are perceived thanks to our nervous system and our sense organs, which the mind, under a great charge of energy from the spirit, transforms and transports to transform all relationships into feelings. emotions of the mind with the living organism that is released on a great relativity and organic function of the organism causing a secondary effect on the organism developing on human cells an extraordinary source of energy causing great moral and personal transformations on chemical effects and fluid of the spirit that we can classify a cognition about perception and thought that from the depths of the soul we remain more complete to the five senses of the human body causing a metabolic effect on the functions of the organism and on the human mind.

Who created the theory of moods?

Hippocrates (460-370 BC) considered the “father of medicine”, although medicine existed since Ancient Egypt with the philosopher and poet Imhotep (2655-2600 BC), developed a medical model based on the four elements of Empedocles and behind It imbued its characteristics with four humors (from the Latin humor, bodily fluid).

Humor theory:

It is important to locate the word “humor” in history: in Greco-Roman antiquity, the term was related to liquids and fluids. The evolution of its meaning developed towards “state of mind”. A “good-natured” person, therefore, would be someone with good moods/liquids inside them.

So, to understand the Theory of Humors, we must understand its roots:

The Greek philosopher Empedocles (c.495-435 BC) suggested that the four elements (water, air, fire and earth) and their characteristics (temperature and humidity/dryness) could explain the existence of any substance.

The physician Hippocrates (460 BC-377 BC), considered the father of Western Medicine, had philosophy as his ally. Thus, he developed a medical model based on these four elements, attributing their characteristics to bodily fluids – the humors. Thus, health would result from its balance, while excesses and lacks would explain disease states.

It was with the physician Galen (c.129-c.201 AD) that Hippocratic-based medicine reached its peak. He expanded the theory, relating it to personality and the emotional and behavioral inclinations of individuals.

Soon, the theory of moods/temperaments was developed. It consists of the hypothesis that each body is formed by mixtures of the four elements, so that each being would be born with a combination of them.

The predominance of some element would result in a temperament. They would be:

• Blood – in subjects who have excessive blood. Its resulting characteristics would be joy, optimism, confidence and extroversion.

• Phlegmatic – in subjects who have excessive phlegm. Its resulting characteristics would be shyness, apathy, slowness, tiredness and coherence.

• Choleric – in subjects who have excessive yellow bile. Its resulting characteristics would be irritability, intensity, impulsiveness and speed.

• Melancholic – in subjects who have excessive black bile. Its resulting characteristics would be artistic inclination, sadness, fear and introversion.

Thus, to promote health, the scholar recommended care in relation to the environment, sleep, rest, food and passions.

His sayings lasted until the Renaissance when new research began.

Although the theory is not part of current Psychology, its contribution to the area was notable. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that she contributed to the studies of Kant, Wundt and the Society of Jesus.

By: Paula Farias Akkari

Psychologist (CRP 06/178290), graduated from PUC-SP.

Master's student in Social Psychology at the same institution.

Postgraduate student at the Dasein Institute.

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in the dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation in the human mind.

I want to say that certain things come from others as my psychoanalysis relates to the modification and emotional developments due to certain chemical combinations of certain substances that develop in the organism giving us a synthesis that the world originated from a great transformation that was densely hot and exploded causing in the relativity of life and existence the life that in mere circumstances we can say that the mind operates and performs miracles due to its protein content in which the spirit passes into a state of tonification that resurrects the matter that in alchemy we can prescribe that in everything there is a magic in which, based on nature, everything would be transmutable and transformable, which we can classify as a state of grace, also talking about spiritual development called holy spirit when alchemy reaches its highest point, reaching 90 degrees which transforms all organic substances into a great natural relativity that combines and passes to a certain state of chemical transformation of the spirit that enters the chemical functions of the organism in which an atom is created on life, which means a nucleus atomic as the key to all organic relativities forming a life and thus we prescribe all the emotional and moral fluids that govern human nature by proposing to us various questions of feeling and thought that are transformed by the nuclear energy of the spirit to which nuclear mica making a thousand ways of feeling like loving, hating and much more as nature oscillates us with the relative functioning of the organism that remains with every biochemical relationship transforming us into various personalities that we can classify the mind as a generator of various submissions that give us shows more discoverable the most human way of living and thus we can prescribe the human mind and its monotony and its more than secret desires as a way of loving or hating, leading us to the best or worst relationships with social life that can both oppress us and us transform into true geniuses in which all nature can show us and educate us according to life.

I want to highlight a good understanding with everyone about an extraordinary research on emotional and moral fluids that extends over the great chemical development of the spirit passing to the soul and transforming into a metabolic function in the organism that through the substances of vitamins, proteins and Mineral salts cells become emergent to the organism giving emotional functions to the organism transforming emotions into a great relativity of certain thoughts that come from great effects caused by the emotional and moral fluid in which the organism of a human being finds itself led to various transformations in dissemination of certain liquid and solid substances that pass in the smallest fraction of an atom on the mental effects causing a great emotional transformation to the human mind and I want to thank you for my great enthusiasm and study and I want all scientists with master's degrees in social psychology as various geniuses of science can obtain great information with my great discovery and that will lead to the development of great research and theory on the relativities of man with human nature in which he can develop in his class on all organic function a great exploration on the development of the mental and moral fluid that we can develop great and extraordinary works on the most versatile mechanics of life and thank you all very much and I want to thank everyone at the great EDU academy and I want to say that my studies are the foundations of my creation and thinking that always I researched the area of ​​modern science for the great future that awaits us with open doors and thank you all very much!

THE POWER OF THE SUBCONSCIOUS

I believe that there are several sciences in our lives that, through a means of acting, we can better identify with an atmosphere. our desires that we live more unconsciously than consciously and I find this fact unbalanced for a subtle and excellent proof that we can identify with our feelings that we feel and pass on to the subconscious a mentalization of whatever this thing is and keep it for a conviction of a magnificent experience of our subconscious as several writers talk about this total power that reacts in a positive way in our minds like Joseph Murphy and other writers that the mind operates and performs miracles on you.

There have been many cases of miracles in churches or in people from different places who were sick with serious health problems and were cured by high esteem or ardent faith that affects you and all of us because our minds go into cyclones with the soul and the unnoticed spirit goes through a high energy process like a euphoria that is simply generated atomically to the subconscious and the matter is healed and the illness is disseminated by an extraordinary energy called holy spirit or power of the mind that generates the subconscious and pass this information to you in a state of faith of your feelings.

I believe that the mind heals and works miracles in all of us!

In another vision, I want to get deeper between us and seriously move to the other side of life because we are more passive and our subconscious is being introduced to an extraordinary form of phenomenal existence that we start to create in our mental visions images of people, places and etc.

So this is magnificent and everything will be magnanimous, giving us the ability to explore with intention our cosmic world in which thousands of particles have been integrated into a smaller fraction of our atom that, through the subtle energy of the soul generated in our subconscious, will form a subtle nucleus through be an image and then it will be transmuted in our mind without any dense disorder and will become dense in a projection of the mind in our visions that will atomically be a being or perhaps something that we think about.

I read this in a book about magnetic life forms by an American scientist who was researching the origin of the cosmic universe and started to penetrate the power of the mind and used the subconscious and did some experiments using photographs and images that he could create in the future.

something perhaps with life or brute to the details of mother nature in which all this remains in the quintessential essence of life.

Using the power of the mind, an aquantum physics, the fearless laws of the cosmic universe in which we involve ourselves, body and soul, on an extraordinary creation of our subconscious that stores and then projects any creation, all of which is a combination of our mind.

I believe in God the almighty father and creator of heaven and earth, but I tell you that there is a chemical factor in our functions that completes us with the four elements of universal nature and if we are the son of this omnipotent god we can perhaps put a magnetic radiation in our minds that are active and are a small universe can develop and create things that can benefit us among our material planes.

Passing from the subtle to the dense state in a magnetic transmutation of our subconscious and projecting onto a material plane after an integration with life.

Perhaps the gross materials are too hard because they are dense and weighed down in any formulation or creation, leaving the light state that is subtle and in contact with the soul and can then be generated and become homogeneous with any matter.

In a spiritual study we leave every material side and seek more our innermost beings and our Self to have a deep conservation of life and all existence because I tell you that the spirit means light and life and that is where all life is. be nuclear chemistry.

Matter is the atomic nucleus and this nucleus is dense and contains liquid in its physical state and our bodies pass different information to every part of our bodies that react in a chemical state and with emotional influences causing a positive and negative impact on our feelings that they pass information to the subconscious, which stores it so that we can later identify with our subjects.

I believe that we can reach a goal in life when we bring together the two positive and negative levels through a more passive outlet that we see and can create a more constant and efficient form of life similar to the universe itself and that does not destroy itself and Yes, always have a safe life without any illness and may we live happily for a long time in life.

RELATIONSHIPS AND ANSWERS ABOUT SCIENCES;

WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

What is Biology? Who has never asked this question when studying this subject? This science is related to the study of life in all its nuances

Biology studies life in its most varied aspects

Before starting to study any discipline, we must know what it is. It was probably this question that brought you here: what is Biology, after all?

The name of this science comes from the combination of two Greek terms: bio, which means life, and logos, which means study. Therefore, we say that Biology is the science responsible for studying life in all its aspects.

aspects. But you must be asking yourself: What would life be? And, after all, what are these aspects studied by Biology?

As incredible as this may seem, the first question is not easy to answer, as life does not have a definition accepted by all scientists. It is very difficult to clearly define what life is without excluding some clearly living organisms. Until then, the vast majority of researchers have established that a living being is an organism that has metabolism, reproduces and is subject to evolutionary processes.

From the definition of life, other questions arise: What is metabolism? What is reproduction? What is evolution? We can say that metabolism is the biochemical reactions that occur in a being's body and in its cells. Reproduction is the ability to generate a new living being. Finally, evolution concerns the changes that living beings undergo over time. Therefore, for an organism to be considered alive, it must carry out biochemical reactions in its body, be capable of generating offspring and undergo modifications over time.

Now that we know what life is that biologists study, it remains to know the factors linked to it that are specifically studied by Biology. Unfortunately, this answer is not simple either, as this science is concerned with each and every characteristic of a living organism. When studying this science, we analyze the physical and chemical characteristics of a being, the structures of its cells, its genes, how organs work, how the development and evolution of a living being occurs, how this organism relates to others and to the environment, among several other fundamental aspects to understand how a being establishes itself or has established itself on the planet.

Faced with so many questions to be answered about a living being, it was necessary to divide Biology into several areas so that the study could occur satisfactorily. Botany, for example, is an area of ​​Biology that studies plants. However, there is no professional who studies

all aspects of plants, as there are botanists specialized in plant anatomy, physiology, taxonomy, genetics and several other aspects.

It is worth noting that Biology does not exist just to describe living beings. It was through it that we achieved wonderful discoveries, such as those that occurred in the field of health and that contributed to the prevention of various diseases and the cure of problems that were previously death sentences. This science has also achieved wonderful results in Genetics, such as the creation of genetically modified organisms. Furthermore, Biology plays a fundamental role in Criminalistics, helping to hold criminals accountable through the study of biological material at crime scenes.

It can be seen, therefore, that Biology, even though it is an extremely broad, complex area and full of questions to be answered, is also an area full of beauties and fascinating aspects that make us understand the importance of each being, from the macro to the microscopic ones.

In this space you will discover the most curious points of Biology and delve deeper into essential topics for this science. Discover in the texts below what is most fascinating about the study of life.

Good reading!

Vitamins

Lana Magalhães

Biology teacher

Vitamins are organic compounds that are not synthesized by the body and are incorporated through food.

They are essential for the functioning of important biochemical processes in the body, especially as catalysts for chemical reactions.

The main sources of vitamins are fruits, vegetables, legumes, meat, milk, eggs and cereals.

Partial vitamin deficiency is called hypovitaminosis, while excess vitamin intake is called hypervitaminosis. Avitaminosis is the extreme or total lack of vitamins.

There are also provitamins, substances from which the body is capable of synthesizing vitamins. For example: carotenes (provitamin A) and sterols (provitamin D).

Vitamins are found in a wide range of foods

Types

Vitamins are divided into two groups, depending on the substance in which they dissolve:

· Fat-soluble vitamins: These are fat-soluble vitamins and can therefore be stored. This group includes vitamins A, D, E and K.

· Water-soluble vitamins: These are vitamins from the B complex and vitamin C, which are soluble in water. They cannot be stored in the body, making cases of hypervitaminosis rare. They are also absorbed and excreted quickly.

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A (Retinol/Beta-Carotene)

· Functions: Growth and development of tissues; antioxidant action; reproductive functions; integrity of the epithelia; important for vision.

· Sources: Liver, kidney, cream, butter, whole milk, egg yolk, cheese and oily fish. Sources of carotenes present in carrots, zucchini, sweet potatoes, mango, melon, papaya, red peppers, broccoli, watercress, spinach.

· Hypovitaminosis: Keratinization of the mucous membranes lining the respiratory tract, digestive tract and urinary tract. Keratinization of the skin and eye epithelium. Skin changes, insomnia, acne, dry skin with flaking, decreased taste and appetite, night blindness, corneal ulcers, loss of appetite, growth inhibition, fatigue, bone abnormalities, weight loss, increased incidence of infections.

· Hypervitaminosis: Joint pain, thinning of long bones, hair loss and jaundice.

Vitamin D

· Functions: Absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Helps the growth and resistance of bones, teeth, muscles and nerves;

· Sources: Milk and derivatives, margarines and enriched cereals, fatty fish, eggs, brewer's yeast.

· Hypovitaminosis: Bone abnormalities, rickets, osteomalacia;

· Hypervitaminosis: Hyperkalemia, bone pain, weakness, failures in development, calcium deposits in the kidneys;

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

· Functions: Antioxidant action, protects cells from damage caused by free radicals, helping to prevent cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer.

· Sources: Vegetable oils, walnuts, almonds, hazelnuts, wheat germ, avocado, oats, sweet potatoes, dark green vegetables.

· Hypovitaminosis: Hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, peripheral neuropathy and skeletal myopathy.

· Hypervitaminosis: There is no known toxicity.

Vitamin K

· Functions: Catalyze the synthesis of blood clotting factors in the liver. Vitamin K acts in the production of prothrombin, which combines with calcium to help produce the clotting effect, as well as being necessary for maintaining bone health.

· Sources: Green leafy vegetables, liver, beans, peas and carrots.

· Hypovitaminosis: Tendency to hemorrhage.

· Hypervitaminosis: Dyspnea and Hyperbilirubinemia.

Water-soluble Vitamins Vitamin C

· Functions: Antioxidant, healing, acts on the growth and maintenance of body tissues, including bone matrix, cartilage, glue geno and connective tissue.

· Food sources: Citrus fruits, red fruits, apples, tomatoes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cabbage, broccoli.

· Hypovitaminosis: Hemorrhagic spots on the skin and bones, weak capillaries, fragile joints, difficulty in wound healing, bleeding gums.

Exotic fruits are also excellent sources of vitamin C.

Complex B vitamins

B complex vitamins comprise eight vitamins, they are:

Thiamine (B1)

· Functions: Release of energy from carbohydrates, fats and alcohol.

· Sources: Wheat germ, peas, yeast, fortified breakfast cereals, peanuts, liver, potatoes, pork and beef, liver, grains, legumes.

· Hypovitaminosis: Beriberi (pain and paralysis of the extremities, cardiovascular changes and edema), anorexia, indigestion, constipation, gastric atony, insufficient secretion of hydrochloric acid, fatigue, general apathy, weakening of the heart muscle, edema, heart failure and chronic pain in the musculoskeletal system.

· Hypervitaminosis: May interfere with the absorption of other B vitamins.

Riboflavin (B2)

· Functions: Provides energy from food, growth in children, restoration and maintenance of tissues.

· Sources: Yogurt, milk, cheese, liver, kidney, heart, wheat germ, vitaminized breakfast cereals, grains, oily fish, yeast, eggs, crab, almonds, pumpkin seeds, vegetables.

· Hypovitaminosis: Cheilosis (cracks in the corners of the mouth), glossitis (edema and redness of the tongue), blurred vision, photophobia, peeling of the skin, seborrheic dermatitis.

Niacin (B3)

· Functions: Necessary for the production of energy in cells. It plays a role in the actions of enzymes in the metabolism of fatty acids, tissue respiration and elimination of toxins.

· Sources: Lean meats, liver, oily fish, peanuts, vitaminized breakfast cereals, milk, mushroom cheese, peas, green leafy vegetables, eggs, artichokes, potatoes, asparagus.

· Hypovitaminosis: Weakness, pellagra, anorexia, indigestion, skin rashes, mental confusion, apathy, disorientation, neuritis.

Pantothenic Acid (B5)

· Functions: Transformation of energy from fats, proteins and carbohydrates into essential substances such as hormones and fatty acids.

· Sources: Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, wheat germ, peanuts, nuts, whole grains, avocado.

· Hypovitaminosis: Neurological diseases, headache, cramps and nausea.

Pyridoxine (B6)

· Functions: Plays a role in the central nervous system, participates in lipid metabolism, in the structure of phosphorylase and in the transport of amino acids across the cell membrane.

· Sources: Wheat germ, potatoes, bananas, cruciferous vegetables, chestnuts, walnuts, fish, avocado, sesame seeds.

· Hypovitaminosis: Abnormalities of the central nervous system, skin disorders, anemia, irritability and convulsions.

· Hypervitaminosis: Ataxia and sensory neuropathy.

Biotin (B8)

· Functions: Production of energy through food, synthesis of fats, excretion of protein residues.

· Sources: Egg yolk, liver, kidney, heart, tomato, yeast, oats, beans, soy, walnuts, artichokes, peas and mushrooms.

· Hypovitaminosis: Skin changes.

Folate (B9) - Folic Acid

· Functions: Acts as a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism, maintains the function of the immune system, together with vitamin B12, is present in the synthesis of DNA and RNA, in addition to participating in the formation and maturation of blood cells.

· Sources: Green leafy vegetables, liver, beetroot, wheat germ, vitaminized cereals, nuts, peanuts, grains, legumes.

· Hypovitaminosis: Megaloblastic anemia, mucosal lesions, neural tube malformation, growth problems, gastrointestinal disorders, changes in cellular nuclear morphology.

Cobalamin (B12)

· Functions: Acts as a coenzyme in the metabolism of amino acids and in the formation of the heme portion of hemoglobin; essential for the synthesis of DNA and RNA; participates in the formation of red blood cells

· Sources: Foods of animal origin, liver, kidney, lean meat, milk, eggs, cheese, yeast.

· Hypovitaminosis: Pernicious anemia, megaloblastic anemia, gastrointestinal disorders.

· Discover what it is for and where to find each type of vitamin

Vitamins promote several benefits for the body, in addition to keeping the body functioning in order. According to nutritionist André Veinert, they also belong to a group of organic nutrients that promote physical and mental well-being. Therefore, they must be taken daily in adequate portions.

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- The amount to be ingested may vary depending on the person's age, sex, health status and physical activity. Vitamin doses should be increased and reinforced in pregnant women, breastfeeding women and people with poor health - explains the specialist.

Vitamins are classified according to the substances that dissolve them. Vitamins A, D, K, E are fat-soluble, that is, soluble in fat. If ingested in Excess can harm the body. Vitamin C and the B complex (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9) are water-soluble (soluble in water). They are excreted by the kidneys and can be consumed daily.

The nutritionist warns about the lack of vitamins in the body, which can cause avitaminosis and other diseases.

- Absence may be caused by a poorly varied diet. Those who do not consume fruits or vegetables can develop some diseases as a result of avitaminosis - he states.

But remember that abusive consumption also becomes a health hazard. Seek guidance from experts, maintain healthy habits and do physical exercise, this way you will keep your entire body and mind functioning in perfect harmony.

Discover the main vitamins and their most important functions: Vitamin A

It plays a very important role in vision, growth, development

and skin maintenance. Where to find: foods of animal origin, dark green leafy vegetables, yellow-orange fruits.

Vitamin D

It is fundamental in bone metabolism, helping to prevent diseases such as rickets, osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Where to find: fish liver oil, butter, cream, egg yolks and salmon.

Vitamin E

It is related to the prevention of conditions associated with oxidative stress, such as aging, cancer, cardiovascular disease, among others. Where to find: almonds, corn oil, soybean oil, egg yolks, walnuts, wheat germ.

Vitamin C

It helps to strengthen the immune system, assists in the body's iron absorption process, combats stress and acts as a natural antibiotic.

Where to find: pineapple, strawberry, lemon, orange, passion fruit.

Vitamin K

It is important for good blood clotting, being present in the fat of foods, especially of vegetable origin. Where to find it: Green foods such as leafy vegetables and legumes such as kale, broccoli and parsley.

B12 vitamin

It is associated with the functioning of all cells and also nervous tissue. Its absence can cause neurological changes and the development of megaloblastic anemia. Where to find: liver and kidney, milk, eggs, fish, cheeses and meats.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

It keeps the nervous and circulatory system in good working order and helps with blood formation and carbohydrate metabolism. Prevents aging, improves brain function, fights depression and fatigue. Where to find: leafy vegetables (romaine lettuce, spinach), eggplant, mushrooms, whole grains, beans, nuts, tuna, beef and poultry.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavian)

Prevents cataracts, helps repair and maintain the skin and produce the hormone adrenaline. Where to find it: vegetables, whole grains, milk and meats.

Vitamin B3 (Nicotinamide)

Reduces triglycerides and cholesterol and assists in the proper functioning of the nervous and immune systems. Where to find: yeast, lean beef and poultry meat, liver, milk, egg yolks, whole grains, leafy vegetables (broccoli, spinach), asparagus, carrots, sweet potatoes, dried fruits, tomatoes, avocados.

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Helps in the formation of red blood cells and chemical detoxification. Prevents cartilage degeneration and helps build antibodies. Where

find: meats, eggs, milk, whole and whole grains, peanuts, yeast, vegetables (broccoli), some fruits (avocado), cold water fish ovary, royal jelly.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Reduces the risk of heart disease, helps maintain the central nervous system and the immune system. Additionally, it relieves migraines and nausea.

Where to find: whole grains, sunflower seeds, soybeans, peanuts, beans, poultry, fish, fruits (banana, tomato, avocado) and vegetables (spinach).

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Promotes cell growth, assists in the production of fatty acids and reduces blood sugar. Vitamin B7 prevents baldness and also relieves muscle pain. Where to find: poultry meat, liver, kidneys, egg yolks, cauliflower, peas.

Vitamin B9 (folic acid)

Promotes hair and skin health. Vitamin B9 provides nutrients to ensure the maintenance of the immune, circulatory and nervous systems and helps fight breast and colon cancer.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

It acts on red blood cells, nerve cells, hormonal balance and skin beauty. When the consumption of foods rich in vitamin B12 is small, a dietary supplement should be taken to avoid anemia and other complications. Where to find: liver, kidneys, meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese.

MINERALS

Minerals are inorganic chemical compounds that, when grouped together, give rise to different types of rocks.

Published by: Rodolfo F. Alves Pena in Physical Geography

Set of different minerals for economic use

Minerals are naturally formed inorganic chemical compounds that have a well-defined molecular structure. They can be formed on Earth or appear on the planet net through meteorites and other non-terrestrial space bodies.

Currently, there are more than four thousand minerals cataloged and, as geological studies advance, more and more minerals are being discovered, some of them originating from 2014, for example, a group of researchers discovered a new mineral present in a

meteorite that had been collected in Antarctica in the 1960s. The name of the mineral is Wassonite and it was only produced on Earth in laboratory research.

Atoms, in general, have a crystallized structure with an established chemical chain, responsible for giving this mineral its physical properties. As we have already mentioned, they are always of inorganic origin, so materials of organic origin are called mineraloids, such as pearl and amber.

Depending on their composition, minerals can be classified as metallic and non-metallic:

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a) Metallic minerals: as the name suggests, they are those composed of metallic chemical elements. They tend to be good conductors of electricity. Examples: aluminum, iron, copper, etc.

b) Non-metallic minerals: are those not composed of metallic chemical elements, such as diamond, limestone and sand.

The study of minerals is complex. The observation of its characteristics follows some different criteria, namely:

1) Crystallization: corresponds to the three-dimensional geometric shape of the mineral.

2) Color: corresponds to the external color of the mineral, with the wavelengths absorbed by its chemical composition.

3) Transparency: ability of minerals to absorb light or not, and can be divided into translucent and opaque.

4) Brightness: amount of light reflected by the mineral.

5) Hardness: is the mineral’s ability to scratch and not be scratched.

6) Trace: the color of the mineral powder.

7) Fracture: is the irregular surface of the mineral resulting from its breakage.

8) Density: is the number of times that a mineral is heavier than an equal volume of water.

9) Cleavage: level of rupture of minerals on a flat or regular surface.

10) Electromagnetic properties: ability of minerals to conduct or not conduct electric current and their ability to relate to magnetism, among some other properties of a similar level.

WHAT ARE MINERAL SALTS USED FOR?

Mineral salts are part of the necessary inorganic substances that the human body needs to function properly. Like water, they are generally simpler molecules, but they perform very important functions.

They can be dissolved or not, and found in everything from skeletal structures to the form of ions necessary for metabolism. Living beings cannot produce mineral salts internally, unlike organic nutrients, which can be synthesized from other substances. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain these inorganic nutrients externally, through ingestion in the necessary organization.

In the case of the human body, for example, they help in the formation of bones and teeth, assist in the transmission of electrical commands, in coagulation and in balancing the transition of fluids between cells and the rest of the organism. When there is a lack of mineral salts in the body, it is possible that this deficit can even lead to death.

Find out more about mineral salts, their importance in the human body, and which are the main salts we use in our body:

What are the main functions of mineral salts?

Among the diverse functions of mineral salts in the human body, the following stand out:

· Important substances in the formation and repair of the body’s bones – especially those related to calcium;

· Regulation of the action of enzymes, through their presence in the body;

· Central role in balancing osmosis processes;

· Participate in the formation of some mostly organic molecules;

It is important to note that the human body is not capable of producing its own mineral salts. Unlike what happens with some organic nutrients, which end up being converted into calories through different processes, salts cannot simply be replaced. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that the diet always includes an adequate amount of substances.

Main mineral salts used by the body

Among the various mineral salts used, some of them stand out for their central functions in the body:

Calcium

Calcium is one of the most abundant minerals in the human body. It lodges especially in bone and tooth structures. In addition to actively participating in bone formation, it is an essential part of cell permeability control mechanisms.

Calcium is also important in the muscular, hormonal and blood sphere, releasing hormones and participating in blood clotting.

Iron

Iron is another essential mineral for the functioning of the body. More specifically, it helps in the formation of hemoglobin – necessary for the transport of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. It is also directly related to oxygen within the muscle, storing the substance in the cells.

Fluorine

Best known for its orthodontic use, fluoride helps with dental and bone health, in addition to participating in the construction of tissues and cells

Phosphor

Phosphorus has two main functions in the human body. One is the participation of the substance in skeletal formation, together with calcium. The other is its energetic importance, being part of the composition of ATP, an energy molecule that all cells in our body use to carry out their activities.

Iodine

Iodine is essential in the cardiovascular, skeletal, urinary and respiratory systems. Furthermore, it is central to the composition of the thyroid, one of the most important in human metabolism. Furthermore, it is essential in the growth process not only of humans, but of various organisms.

Magnesium

Magnesium is a slightly less common mineral salt in nature, but it is absolutely important, especially in the process of duplicating nucleic acids. Furthermore, it helps in the transmission of nerve impulses, exchange of electrons and synthesis of certain nutrients in the body.

Potassium

Potassium, like sodium, acts directly on nerve impulses. It is also important for the regulation of metabolism, from issues relating to water, to the regulation of blood pressure and the production of certain nutrients in the body.

Sodium

Sodium is a fundamental part of the electrical impulses of nerve cells. It is also involved in the process of regulating water and pressure in the body

PROTEINS

Lana Magalhães

Biology teacher

Proteins are the most abundant organic macromolecules in cells, fundamental to cellular structure and function. They are found in all types of cells and in viruses.

They are formed by amino acids linked together and joined through peptide bonds.

Amino acids

Amino acids are organic molecules that have at least one amine group - NH2 and one carboxyl group - COOH in their structure.

General structure of the amino acid

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is the union of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid with the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid.

They are the fundamental units of proteins. All proteins are formed from the sequential linkage of 20 amino acids. Some special amino acids may be present in some types of proteins.

SEE ALSO: Protein Synthesis

Protein Composition

Of extremely high molecular weight, proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, practically all of which contain sulfur. Elements such as iron, zinc and copper may also be present.

All proteins are made up of a set of 20 amino acids, arranged in different specific sequences.

Types of Proteins

Depending on their function in the body, proteins are classified into two large groups:

· Dynamic Proteins: This type of protein performs functions such as defending the body, transporting substances, catalyzing reactions, controlling metabolism;

· Structural Proteins: As the name suggests, their main function is the structuring of cells and tissues in the human body. Collagen and elastin are examples of this type of protein.

SEE ALSO: Molecular Biology

Classification of Proteins

Proteins can be classified in the following ways:

Regarding the Composition

· Simple Proteins: Only release amino acids during hydrolysis;

· Conjugated Proteins: Upon hydrolysis, they release amino acids and a non-peptide radical, called the prosthetic group.

Regarding the Number of Polypeptide Chains

· Monomeric Proteins: Formed only by one polypeptide chain;

· Oligomeric Proteins: With a more complex structure and function, they are formed by more than one polypeptide chain.

Regarding the Form

· Fibrous Proteins: Most fibrous proteins are insoluble in aqueous media and have very high molecular weights. They are normally formed by long molecules with an almost rectilinear shape and parallel to the fiber axis. This group includes structural proteins such as collagen from connective tissue, keratin from hair, myosin from muscles, among others;

· Globular Proteins: They have a more complex spatial structure and are spherical. They are generally soluble in aqueous media. Examples of globular proteins include active proteins, such as enzymes, and transport proteins, such as hemoglobin.

Find out more, read also:

· Structure of Proteins

· Polymers

· Biomolecules

Function of Proteins

The main functions of proteins are:

· Energy supply;

· Cell structuring;

· Catalyst of biological functions, in the form of enzymes;

· Regulation of metabolic processes;

· Storage of substances;

· Transport of substances;

· Construction and repair of tissues and muscles;

· Defense of the body, in the form of antibodies;

Production of hormones and neurotransmitters. SEE ALSO: Albumin

Protein-rich foods

Protein-rich foods

Foods rich in protein are those of animal origin and a smaller amount of vegetable origin:

· Foods of animal origin: Meat in general, fish, eggs, milk and derivatives;

· Foods of plant origin: Beans, lentils, soybeans, quinoa, wheat, peas.

What are proteins for? Understand its importance in our diet

You're probably tired of hearing that protein is one of the essential nutrients for the body to function properly. But do you know exactly why it’s important? To begin to understand, it is worth highlighting that athletes who want to gain lean mass and increase muscle definition do not opt ​​for a diet rich in this substance by chance: proteins are made up of amino acids that contribute precisely to tissue growth. In addition, they also replace lost energy, help the body's defense, transport substances throughout the body and act on the nervous system. Take a look at the article to find out more details!

Protein is an essential substance in the diet of athletes

Anyone who is an athlete or practices physical activities daily needs to be very careful when choosing which type of diet to follow so that the body has the necessary energy to perform the exercises and enhance the results of the training. Among the most recommended foods are those rich in proteins precisely because they provide more energy and contribute to the increase in lean mass and muscle definition - so much so that protein supplements, such as the one using whey protein, are allies of the diet. food for those who want faster results.

Protein-rich foods bring several benefits to the body, which even includes improving brain health.

This mass gain is related to the fact that proteins appear as building nutrients, which act directly on the formation and growth of tissues.

Substance has a regulatory function - and an example is insulin

Another important advantage of proteins is that they help regulate some metabolic functions. A good example of this is insulin - which, although many people don't know, is a protein hormone. Often mentioned when it comes to diabetes, it is responsible for controlling blood glucose (sugar) levels, and its deficiency can cause serious problems for those suffering from the disease.

To increase insulin production and reduce resistance to the substance, the tip is to focus on foods that can be true allies in this function - as is the case with cinnamon, flaxseed and green leafy vegetables, for example.

May help strengthen nails and hair

Did you know that proteins can also bring aesthetic benefits by strengthening nails and hair? But, to actually take advantage of this advantage, you need to follow a diet that is rich in this substance - since, when absorbed through food, it breaks down into small amino acids that will meet the body's main needs before acting on the parts considered secondary.

Protein makes you feel full and speeds up your metabolism

When talking about increasing the feeling of satiety, foods rich in fiber are the ones most remembered - but proteins can also contribute to this function! This is because the substance is digested slowly, which makes the body feel full faster and there is no need to snack between meals. Added to this, there is the fact that it helps speed up metabolism - which is great for those who want to lose weight, especially.

Increased immunity is also among the benefits

For the body to remain disease-free, it needs protection against the action of harmful agents. Antibodies perform this function - which are, in fact, defense proteins that increase immunity and prevent foreign bodies from causing any complications in the body.

That's why anyone who has the flu, cold or any other health problem that affects the immune system should opt for a diet rich in proteins to enjoy all the benefits of the protective function that this substance has.

A high-protein diet also impacts brain health

Our brain needs a specific amount of amino acids - that is, proteins - to function well, with its cognitive functions properly activated. Thus, this is yet another reason to increase the absorption of this nutrient through the consumption of the right foods - such as meat, cheese, eggs, tofu and beans, for example.

The result is a healthier nervous system, with much more concentration, focus and better motor coordination.

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES?

Click here and learn about carbohydrates, important substances that serve as a source of energy for all living beings.

by E kids school

With the exception of honey, carbohydrates are only found in vegetables

Carbohydrates can also be called carbohydrates or sugars, and they are the main source of energy for living beings, being present in different types of food. With the exception of honey, all carbohydrates are of vegetable origin, such as cereals (rice, wheat, oats, etc.), roots and tubers (potatoes, cassava, carrots, beets, etc.), legumes (beans, peas, soybeans etc.), fruits (banana, mango, apple, etc.) among many others.

In addition to serving as a source of energy, carbohydrates also have a structural function, as they participate in the formation of some structures in living beings, such as cellulose and chitin. Furthermore, carbohydrates participate in the structure of both DNA and RNA.

Carbohydrates are the main energy source for living beings

Carbohydrates can be classified into three groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are very simple sugars, and their main representatives are glucose (made by plants during photosynthesis), fructose (found in honey) and galactose (present in milk). Monosaccharides are soluble in water.

Disaccharides are formed by the union of two monosaccharides, and their best-known representatives are sucrose and lactose. Disaccharides are soluble in water.

→ Sucrose: formed by a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule. Sucrose is the sugar we consume at home, which we use in our coffee, juices, sweets, etc. This carbohydrate can be found mainly in sugar cane and beets.

→ Lactose: formed by a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. It is the sugar found in milk, and is the main source of energy for the baby during breastfeeding.

Polysaccharides are formed by the union of hundreds, and even thousands, of monosaccharides and are not soluble in water. The best-known examples of polysaccharides are:

• Starch: main source of energy in our diet. Plants use starch as an energy reserve, which is why we can find it inside stems, but mainly in roots, tubers and seeds.

• Cellulose: cellulose is the main component of the plant cell wall.

• Chitin: main constituent of the exoskeleton (external skeleton) of arthropods, such as insects, arachnids, crustaceans, etc.

The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy

As we have seen, carbohydrates are essential for living beings, as in addition to serving as a source of energy, they are also part of the constitution of several important structures. This is why we must maintain a balanced diet, as this way we can obtain all the nutrients necessary for our body to function properly.

ILLNESSES

Information and summaries about various diseases, symptoms, prophylaxis, medications, treatments and forms of contagion.

Human WormsThe main worms

humans, worms...

· DengueInformation about the disease, mosquito...

· SchistosomiasisLearn more about this disease,...

· TuberculosisWhat is Tuberculosis, bacillus...

· DepressionLearn more about depression,...

· AsthmaAsthma, main characteristics of this...

· STD - Sexually Transmitted DiseasesLearn more about the diseases...

· Yellow FeverInformation about the disease, transmission...

· Avian FluInformation about this disease, forms...

· CandidiasisLearn more about candidiasis,...

· AIDSLearn more about the Syndrome...

· Osteoporosis - Porous bonesLearn more about osteoporosis,...

· DiabetesLearn more about Diabetes, its...

· PneumoniaLearn more about Pneumonia,... Diseases and Other Topics

· Allergies - Allergies, their manifestations, antigens, antibodies, immunoglobulin, histamine, lymphocytes,...

· Diseases caused by fungi - The main diseases caused by fungi in humans,...

· Amebiasis - Find out more about amoebiasis, protozoa, causes, diagnosis, symptoms,...

· Anemia - What is anemia, symptoms, health problems,...

· Arthritis - Learn more about arthritis, its causes, types, process...

· Osteoarthritis - Find out more about Osteoarthritis, its causes, types, photos,...

· Ascariasis - Find out what this disease is, ways of contamination,...

· Autism - Find out more about autism, mental disorder, cause, treatment,...

· Kidney Stones - What are kidney stones, kidney stones, causes,...

· Mumps - What is Mumps, symptoms, causes, disease, transmission, contagion,...

· Cholera - What is cholera, disease, forms of contamination, symptoms,...

· Celiac Disease - Learn more about Celiac Disease, causes, symptoms, treatment,...

· Diseases caused by bacteria - The main diseases caused by bacteria in humans,...

· Diseases caused by Protozoa - The main diseases caused by protozoa in humans,...

· Migraine - Find out what this disease is, its cause, symptoms, treatment,...

· Scurvy - What is scurvy, symptoms, lack of vitamin W,...

· Leptospirosis - Characteristics of leptospirosis, symptoms, treatment, prevention, contamination

· Typhoid Fever - Typhoid Fever, bacteria, symptoms, how to avoid, transmission, prevention, information...

· Filariasis - Filariasis or Elephantiasis, transmission, transmitting mosquito, filariae, characteristics

· Giardiasis - Learn more about giardiasis, protozoa, cause, infection, symptoms,...

· Gigantism - What is gigantism, causes, characteristics, growth hormone

· Leprosy - Leprosy, bacteria, causes, transmission, symptoms, prevention of the disease

· Jaundice - Learn more about jaundice, causes, types, bile pigments...

· Hypertension - Find out more about Hypertension, causes, triggers, symptoms,...

· Urinary Infection - Urinary Infection, Escherichia coli bacteria, causes, symptoms, prevention, treatment

· Leishmaniasis - Find out more about Leishmaniasis, manifestation, types, symptoms, transmission,...

· Leukemia - Leukemia, a disease that causes the abnormal production of blood cells...

· Alzheimer's disease - Find out more about this disease, symptoms, treatment, information

· Parasites - What are human parasites, the most common, diseases...

· Polio - Find out more about Polio, viruses, infantile paralysis, vaccine,...

· Cold - What is a cold, symptoms, causes, disease, transmission, contagion,...

· Rotavirus - Rotavirus - Find out more about the diseases caused by rotaviruses, rotaviruses,...

· Rubella - What is rubella, symptoms, health problems,...

· Measles - Find out more about measles, symptoms, stages of...

· Scabies - Find out more about scabies, skin infection, mites, itching,...

· Sinusitis - Find out more about this disease, symptoms, treatment, prevention, viral...

WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

WHAT IS CELL?

Understanding what a cell is and that all organisms are formed by this structure was essential for the advancement of Biology.

The cell

is the smallest living unit of living beings

Cells can be defined as the structural and functional units of all living beings. These structures are living, carry the genetic information of a given organism and are capable of transmitting this information at the time of cell division.

According to Cell Theory, all living organisms are made up of cells. In unicellular individuals, a single cell constitutes the entire body of the specimen; in multicellular beings, several cells are needed to act together for the body to be formed. The man is a

example of a multicellular organism, and bacteria are examples of unicellular beings.

When we observe the cells of different organisms, we can see that they have very different morphological characteristics. In our body, for example, there are more than 100 different types of cells. It is worth highlighting, however, that, despite being visually distinct, when we analyze their internal organization and biochemical processes in detail, we can conclude that they are quite similar, even in different organisms.

What are the basic parts of a cell?

A cell is made up of some basic parts. Normally we say that all cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. However, there are cells that do not have this last structure, an aspect that is even a way of differentiating two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells are those that do not have a defined cell nucleus, so the genetic material is dispersed in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells are those in which the genetic material is present in a cell nucleus surrounded by a double membrane. In addition to this crucial difference, we can also mention that prokaryotic cells do not have proteins called histones linked to their DNA, nor do they have membranous cytoplasmic organelles.

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The plasma membrane and cytoplasm, unlike the nucleus, are present in all cell types. The plasma membrane, which is characterized by being a double phospholipid layer, is extremely important for the cell, as it controls the passage of substances both in and out. Due to this property of selecting what enters and leaves the cell, we say that it has selective permeability.

The cytoplasm, in turn, is a region delimited by the plasma membrane. This region is made up of a matrix, called cytosol, which contains substances such as amino acids, energetic nutrients and ions. Immersed in this matrix are cellular organelles, structures responsible for controlling the cell's various activities.

→ What are cellular organelles?

Cellular organelles are structures that function like small organs inside the cell. Each organelle performs a certain function and is essential for the proper functioning of the cell. There are several cellular organelles, including:

· Centriole

· Chloroplast

·Golgi complex

Lysosome

· Mitochondria

· Peroxisome

· Endoplasmic reticulum

· Ribosome

It is clear, therefore, that, despite being small, cells have a variety of structures and complex biochemical processes that are essential for the maintenance of life. Without the development of these small structures, life would not be possible.

WHAT ARE CELLS FOR?

All living beings are made up of cells. Some, like the amoeba, are made up of a single cell (single-celled organism), while we have around 60 trillion cells.

So, talking about the function of cells is talking about all the phenomena that characterize life.

What do I mean by that?

Well, now think about all the things you need to do to stay alive. He thought? Also think about things that you are capable of doing, but that are not essential to your survival.

Well, all these things that you thought are, in some way, mediated by cells that make up our body.

For example: We know that we breathe because we need the oxygen that is present in the air. After we breathe in this gas, it goes to our lungs and from there it is transported to the cells. What we call cellular respiration occurs in cells (you may have already heard of it), which is a process that has chemical energy as its final product (fundamental for our survival, as it is this energy that gives “strength” to carry out all the activities of our metabolism). We need oxygen precisely because it is part of one of the stages of this energy production process.

As we can see, this process occurs inside our cells. We can then say that one of the many functions of cells is to produce energy, and that this energy is fundamental for the cell itself to be able to carry out its many other functions.

So we can refer to the cell as a structural unit (because it makes up the body of all living organisms) and also as a functional unit (because it is capable of carrying out all the functions of an organism, such as breathing, growing, reproducing, etc.) .

It is important to understand the scope of this subject, and also to know that we are made up of many different cells (not all of them are the same as the drawings we see in books), and that each type of cell has different functions. Blood cells, for example, have a series of functions that epithelial cells, or bone cells, or any other type of cell do not have. Likewise, plant cells are capable of performing functions that animal cells cannot perform.

Author: Gabriela Teixeira

HUMAN BODY

Lana Magalhães

Biology teacher

The human body is made up of different parts, including skin, muscles, nerves, organs, bones, etc.

Each part of the human body is made up of countless cells that have defined shapes and functions. In addition, there are tissues, organs and systems, which work in an integrated way.

We can compare our body to a complex and perfect machine with all its parts working in sync.

ANATOMY: THE STUDY OF THE HUMAN BODY

The human body is divided into head, trunk and limbs

Human anatomy is the area of ​​Biology that studies the structures of the human body, including systems, organs and tissues. She also looks at how body structures can be affected by genetics, environment and time.

The human body is divided into three basic parts: head, torso and upper and lower limbs.

The anatomical description considers that the body must be in an erect position, standing, with the face facing forward, upper limbs stretched and parallel to the trunk, with the palms facing forward, the lower limbs must be united. This is the so-called anatomical position.

SEE ALSO: What is Human Anatomy?

Levels of Organization of the Human Body

Levels of organization of the human body

The human body is made up of simple structures such as cells, to more complex structures such as organs.

The level of organization of the human body is as follows: cells, tissues, organs, systems and organism. Each of these structures consists of a hierarchical level up to the formation of the entire organism.

Learn more about each of the structures that are part of the organization of the human body:

Cells

Animal cell and its structures

Cells are structures made up of three basic parts: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.

Each cell in the body can vary in shape (stellate, elongated, cylindrical, etc.), size and lifespan. Bone cells, for example, last several years, while skin cells renew themselves in 35 to 45 days.

Each type of cell develops to perform a function in the body. The muscle cell, for example, is capable of contracting. Red blood cells transport oxygen throughout the body. The nerve cell is capable of receiving and transmitting stimuli.

SEE ALSO: 8 Superpowers of the cells of the human body

Fabrics

The body year is made up of different types of fabrics

Human life begins with a single cell. From there, it divides and gives rise to two new cells, which also divide and form two more, and so on.

During the formation of the fetus, in the mother's uterus, cells develop, depending on their location and function in the body. This process is called cell differentiation.

In the human body there are many types of cells, with different shapes and functions. Cells work in groups, they are organized in an integrated way, performing a specific function together.

These cell groups form tissues. The tissues of the human body can be classified into four types:

· Epithelial tissue

· Connective tissue

· Muscle tissue

Nervous tissue

SEE ALSO: Human Body Tissues

Bodies

Main organs of the human body

Tissues, like cells, also group together. The set of tissues that perform a certain function is called an organ. In general, an organ is made up of different types of tissues.

Several organs make up the human body, including the heart, lungs, brain, stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas, kidneys, bones, spleen, eyes, etc. Most of the organs are located in the trunk region.

The skin is the largest organ of the human body.

SEE ALSO: Human Body Organs You Can Survive Without

Systems

Human Body Systems

A set of organs that act in an integrated way constitutes a system. The systems of the human body perform specific functions, however, they act in an integrated way.

The human body is made up of several systems: respiratory, circulatory, digestive, cardiovascular or circulatory, muscular, nervous, endocrine, excretory, lymphatic, reproductive and bone.

Each system has its specific function. The respiratory system, for example, is responsible for absorbing oxygen from the air by the body and eliminating carbon dioxide removed from cells.

Body

Finally, the set of all functioning systems constitutes the organism that together maintains the individual's survival.

Thus, the organism represents the highest level of organization.

Want to know more? Read too:

· Parts of the human body

· Members of the Human Body

· Bones of the Human Body

· Muscles of the Human Body

· Nerves of the Human Body

Curiosities about the Human Body

· The largest bone in the human body is the femur, the thigh bone of the leg. The smallest bone is the stapes, located in the inner ear.

· An adult's heart beats about 100,000 times a day.

· On average, 2 kg of body weight is represented by bacteria that inhabit our body.

· The kidneys filter approximately 1.3 liters of blood per minute.

· A nerve impulse can reach up to 360 km/h.

· An adult has 206 bones, while a baby has 300.

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Lana Magalhães

Biology Anatomy and Physiology Humans Natural Sciences

HUMAN BODY

The human body is capable of performing various functions thanks to the complex structures it has.

by Vanessa Sardinha dos Santos

The human body is a complex machine with several structures that work together.

The human body is a complex structure that allows us to carry out a series of important activities. We can walk, run, remember past events, eat, remove oxygen from the atmosphere, think, among many other activities, all thanks to the various cells, tissues, organs and systems that make up the human body.

→ Levels of organization of the human body

We know that all animals, including humans, are multicellular, that is, they have more than one cell forming their body. These cells have different shapes and functions and form

cell → tissue → organ → system → organism

different tissues, organs and systems. When we consider cells as the first level to be studied, we have the following level of organization:

Let’s get to know each of these levels better:

· Cells: are the functional and structural units of most living beings, with the sole exception of viruses. As we know, several cells are found in the human body, as we are multicellular beings. The cells that make up our body have a membrane-bound nucleus and also membranous organelles, and are therefore eukaryotic.

· Tissues: are made up of similar cells that perform the same function. In humans, we observe four basic types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue.

· Organs: are made up of groupings of tissues that work together to perform a certain task. The heart, stomach, lungs, kidneys, esophagus, liver and spleen are some examples of organs.

· Systems: are made up of organs that work together to perform a function. As an example of systems, we can mention the cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, reproductive, urinary and nervous systems.

To better understand these levels, let us imagine a muscle tissue cell (myocyte), which is joined to others forming cardiac muscle tissue. This tissue forms our heart, an organ that is part of the cardiovascular system. In this case, we have:

myocyte → cardiac striated muscle tissue → heart → cardiovascular system

Read also: Is the skin a tissue or an organ?

→ Cells of the human body

The human body is made up of trillions of cells, each performing a certain function. See some examples of cells and the role they play in our body.

· Adipocytes: cells that store lipids (fat).

· Schwann cells: responsible for the formation of the myelin sheath of neurons.

· Beta cells: cells in the pancreas that are responsible for producing insulin, a hormone related to blood glucose levels.

· Spermatozoa: male gametes.

Note that the human body has different cell types.

· Red blood cells, erythrocytes or red blood cells: blood cells that transport oxygen throughout the body. These are the cells found in greatest quantity in the blood.

· Hepatocytes: liver cells that synthesize proteins and bile, in addition to acting in the detoxification of various substances.

· Leukocytes or white blood cells: blood cells responsible for the body's defense. There are several types of leukocytes, such as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.

· Myocytes or muscle fibers: cells that make up muscles.

· Neurons: cells of nervous tissue that ensure the transmission of nerve impulses.

· Oocyte: female gamete that is also popularly known as an ovum.

→ Human body tissues

In the human body we find four basic types of tissues, which have their subtypes. Follow:

Also read: Human body tissue

· Epithelial tissue: tissue characterized by the presence of cells that are very close to each other, consequently presenting little substance between them (little extracellular matrix). This tissue can be divided into two basic types: lining epithelial tissue and glandular epithelial tissue.

· Connective tissue: its most striking characteristic is the presence of a large amount of extracellular matrix. This is the type of tissue that has the largest number of subtypes, namely:

· Connective tissue itself;

· Adipose tissue;

· Bone tissue;

· Cartilaginous tissue;

· Blood tissue.

· Muscle tissue: has cells with the capacity for contraction. Muscle tissue can be classified into three different types: non-striated or smooth muscle, striated skeletal muscle and striated cardiac muscle.

· Nervous tissue: has cells capable of interpreting and transmitting nerve impulses. It is this tissue, therefore, that can capture information from the external and internal environment and generate responses.

Also read: Skeleton and muscles

→ Organs of the human body

Our body has several organs, which are made up of sets of tissues. These organs are responsible for various functions and are grouped together to form systems. See below some of the most important organs in our body and the role they play in our body.

The human body has several organs, which are made up of sets of tissues.

· Bladder: organ of the urinary system that stores urine.

· Heart: it is, without a doubt, one of the most important organs in our body, being responsible for propelling blood throughout the human body. As the blood contains oxygen and nutrients, the heart ensures that these elements reach all cells.

· Stomach: is an organ of the digestive system and, therefore, is related to the digestion of food. It produces gastric juice, which transforms the food bolus into chyme.

· Small intestine: where the digestion process is completed and most nutrients are absorbed.

Large intestine: where water is absorbed and feces are formed.

· Larynx: organ of the respiratory system that stands out for the presence of so-called vocal folds.

· Ovaries: organs found only in women and where female gametes and female sex hormones are produced.

· Lungs: have a spongy appearance and are related to oxygen capture.

· Kidneys: organs of the urinary system where urine is produced.

· Testis: organs found only in men and where male gametes and male sex hormones are produced.

→ Human body systems

The human body is made up of a series of systems, which perform the most varied functions. See below some of the main systems of the human body.

Human body systems are made up of sets of organs.

· Cardiovascular: formed by the heart and blood vessels and is responsible for the circulation of blood throughout the body.

· Digestive: is formed by the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines and attached glands. It is responsible for breaking down food into smaller particles.

· Endocrine: is the f system

formed by all the endocrine glands in the body, which are responsible for the production of hormones.

· Skeletal: formed by bones and guarantees, among other functions, the support of the body and the protection of internal organs.

· Excretory: also called the urinary system, it is formed by the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. It is responsible for the production and elimination of urine.

· Muscular: is made up of all the muscles in the body.

· Nervous: is responsible for allowing the capture of internal and external stimuli and generating responses to these stimuli.

· Reproducer: is the system responsible for reproduction.

· Respiratory: is formed by the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and lungs. Ensures the capture of oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide.

· Integumentary: made up of skin, hair, nails and glands. It performs several functions, such as coating and protecting the body.

BIOLOGY

HUMAN BODY

The human body is made up of different organs and systems, which, together, perform several essential functions for the individual's survival.

The human body is made up of a large number of cells. ADVERTISING

The human body is made up of several organs and systems, which work together to ensure the perfect functioning of the organism. If we observe at a microscopic level, we can perceive the presence of thousands and thousands of cells, which form tissues, organs and systems, a characteristic that allows us to affirm that human beings are multicellular organisms.

→ Levels of organization of the human body

The human body can be analyzed at different levels of organization. We can study cells, tissues, organs or even various systems. Considering cells as the first hierarchical level of organization, we have:

Cells are considered the functional and structural units of living beings. In our body, we find thousands of cells and, therefore, we are classified as multicellular organisms. The cells found in our body are eukaryotic, that is, they have a defined nucleus and membranous organelles.

Also read: Stem cells

In multicellular living beings, a group of similar cells that perform the same function is called tissue. We have four basic types of tissue in our body: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous.

Tissues can be organized into organs, which are defined as groupings of tissues that perform some specific functions. The organs, in turn, can be interconnected to form systems that perform even more complex functions.

The human body has several organs, which have specific functions to ensure the functioning of the body as a whole.

To better understand these levels, imagine, for example, osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. These cells are from bone tissue, which is responsible for forming bones, organs that make up the system

skeletal. The skeletal system, together with other systems, such as the digestive, muscular, cardiovascular and nervous systems, form the human body.

→ Cells of the human body

The human body has several cell types, which perform the most varied functions. Below are some cell types found in our body and their function.

· Adipocytes: cells that store fats.

Schwann cells: produce the myelin sheath of neurons.

· Beta cells: cells in the pancreas responsible for producing insulin.

· Chondroblasts: young cells of cartilaginous tissue that form the cartilage matrix.

· Chondrocytes: cells of cartilaginous tissue, derived from chondroblasts, which occupy gaps in the cartilage matrix.

· Spermatozoa: male gametes.

· Red blood cells, erythrocytes or red blood cells: blood cells that ensure the transport of oxygen throughout the body.

· Hepatocytes: liver cells that synthesize proteins and bile, in addition to ensuring the detoxification of various substances.

· Leukocytes or white blood cells: blood cells that act in the body's defense. The types of existing leukocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.

In the human body, it is possible to observe different cell types.

· Neurons: cells responsible for transmitting nerve impulses.

· Osteoblasts: bone tissue cells responsible for producing the organic part of the bone matrix.

· Osteocytes: mature cells of bone tissue that derive from osteoblasts and are found in gaps in the bone matrix.

· Osteoclasts: cells of bone tissue that act in the reabsorption of this tissue.

· Oocyte: female gamete.

→ Human body tissues

· Epithelial tissue: its most important characteristic is the presence of juxtaposed cells with little extracellular matrix. It can be classified into two basic types: lining epithelial tissue and glandular epithelial tissue.

Epithelial tissue is characterized by the presence of cells close to each other to the.

· Connective tissue: its main characteristic is the presence of a large amount of extracellular matrix, a characteristic that differentiates it from epithelial tissue. There are several types of connective tissue, namely: connective tissue itself, adipose tissue, blood tissue, cartilaginous tissue and bone tissue.

· Muscle tissue: stands out for the presence of cells with the capacity for contraction. We can classify muscle tissue into three types:

non-striated or smooth muscle, striated skeletal muscle and striated cardiac muscle.

Muscle tissue has the capacity for contraction and can be classified into three different types.

· Nervous tissue: has cells capable of capturing, interpreting and transmitting so-called nerve impulses.

→ Organs of the human body

A human organ can have several tissues, as you can see in the following diagram:

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Note the various tissues found in the stomach, an organ of the digestive system.

All organs in our body are important, but some are vital and others are not. See some examples below.

· Bladder: place where urine is stored after the formation of this product by the kidneys.

· Heart: organ responsible for propelling blood to the body. Thanks to this pumping, cells are able to acquire oxygen and other necessary nutrients. The heart is a muscular organ responsible for pumping blood around the body.

· Esophagus: muscular tube that ensures that food is taken from the mouth to the stomach.

· Stomach: organ of the digestive system in which part of digestion takes place. It is responsible for producing gastric juice and transforming the food bolus into chyme.

Also read: Stomach noise

· Small intestine: where the digestion process ends and the absorption of most of the nutrients taken from food takes place.

· Large intestine: where water is absorbed and feces are formed.

The small intestine and large intestine are part of the digestive system.

· Larynx: this organ of the respiratory system joins the pharynx to the trachea. The vocal folds are located in the larynx.

· Ovaries: organs exclusive to women where female gametes and female sex hormones are produced.

· Pancreas: mixed gland responsible for producing pancreatic juice and two important hormones (insulin and glucagon), which regulate blood glucose levels.

The pancreas is responsible for producing pancreatic juice and the hormones insulin and glucagon.

· Lungs: spongy organs of the respiratory system rich in alveoli, which are the places where gas exchange occurs.

Also read: Pulmonary embolism

· Kidneys: organs of the urinary system where urine is produced.

· Testis: organs exclusive to men where male gametes and male sex hormones are produced.

· Fallopian tubes: part of the female reproductive system where fertilization usually occurs.

· Uterus: part of the female reproductive system where the embryo develops during pregnancy.

→ Main systems of the human body

The human body has several systems, which ensure, for example, the capture of oxygen, the use of nutrients and locomotion.

· Cardiovascular: made up of the heart and blood vessels, it ensures the circulation of blood throughout the body and, consequently, the transport of oxygen and nutrients to all cells.

· Digestive system: formed by the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines and attached glands, it is responsible for ensuring the breakdown of food, transforming it into smaller particles that can be used.

· Endocrine: is formed by all the endocrine glands of the body, which are responsible for the production of hormones, which, in turn, act in the chemical regulation of various activities of the body.

· Skeletal: consisting mainly of bones, it is related to functions such as the protection of internal organs, locomotion, support, calcium storage and production of blood cells.

· Excretory: also known as the urinary system, it is formed by the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra and is responsible for the production and elimination of urine.

· Muscular: is formed by muscles and is related to the movement of our body and the contraction of organs.

· Nervous: is responsible for ensuring the perception of internal and external stimuli and generating responses to these stimuli. Thanks to this system, we are able to memorize, coordinate, speak, feel, see and learn.

· Reproducer: is the system responsible for our reproduction. The female reproductive system ensures the formation of female gametes and the gestation of the baby. The male reproductive system is responsible for the production and transfer of the male gamete to the female.

· Respiratory: formed by the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli, it is responsible for ensuring gas exchange.

· Integumentary: is for It is used by the skin, hair, nails and glands and acts on several functions, such as a barrier against water loss and entry of microorganisms, as well as regulating body temperature.

THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY

The human body is like the machine. It is a unique design as it consists of several biological systems, which are regulated by internal organs.

Read more, to get detailed information about the internal organs of the human body. The human body can be divided into head, torso, hands and legs.

Head and trunk play an important role in protecting some crucial internal organs of the human body. They consist of many tissues, cells and connective tissues, which help in regulating various biological systems.

Some of the major organ systems are the skeletal system, circulatory system, nervous system, digestive system, immune system, respiratory system, urinary system, reproductive system, lymphatic system, and the endocrine system, etc., which are overlapping and interdependent.

LIST OF INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN BODY

Humans and other complex multicellular organisms have organ systems that work together, carrying out processes that keep us alive.

The body has levels of organization that accumulate. Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems.

The function of an organic system depends on the integrated activity of its organs. For example, the organs of the digestive system cooperate to process food.

The survival of the organism depends on the integrated activity of all organ systems. Often coordinated by the endocrine and nervous systems.

Brain:

The human brain is protected by the skull, keeping it very safe as it is the center of the nervous system. The structure of the human brain can be compared with other mammals, but it is three times larger and more advanced than other mammals.

It houses our cherished memories, plans for the future, and keeps us alert in the present. The brain helps the body activate muscles and secretes chemicals that allow it to respond to external stimuli. None of the other animals have the ability to think and weigh things logically.

But, the human brain performs some executive functions, such as: Self-control, planning, reasoning and abstract thinking, which makes human beings the most intelligent species in the entire world.

The human body performs incredible feats every day. From sending signals that spread throughout the brain at high speed to distributing oxygen across more than 1,000 kilometers to 1,600 kilometers of airways.

HEART:

The main function of the heart is to supply oxygenated blood to all organs in the body through blood vessels by rhythmic contractions. Also known as heartbeat.

The heart is made of involuntary cardiac muscles, and that is the reason why the heart continues beating even when we are sleeping. The heart weighs 250 to 350 grams and is about the size of your fist.

It is located on the left side of the chest and is protected by the rib cage. The pericardium, a double-walled sac, that surrounds the heart. Not only does it protect the heart, but it anchors around the structure and prevents the heart from overfilling with blood.

LUNGS:

The human body is made up of two lungs and they carry out the functions of the respiratory system. Lungs work very closely with the heart.

Lungs supply pure oxygen in the atmosphere to the blood, which is in turn distributed by the heart to various organs. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide and other impurities from the blood in the veins.

The heart is almost flanked by the lungs, so it also acts as a soft, shock absorbent for the heart and also maintains the pH level of the blood.

STOMACH:

It is the key player in the digestive system. Stomach is a pear-shaped organ located in the abdominal cavity between the esophagus and intestines. The stomach can change its shape and size depending on the position of the body and the amount of food inside. Since it is muscular and elastic in nature.

Stomach is the large organ and its multi-chambers host bacteria that produce special enzymes necessary for digestion. It is full of gastric acid, hydrochloric acid and maintains pH level which helps in digestion of edible food. It is one of the important internal organs of the human body.

INTESTINE:

Intestine is the digestive tract located between the stomach and the anus. It can be divided into the large and short intestine. The small intestine is narrow and measures 6-7 meters in length, while the large intestine is only 1.5 meters in length but is large in diameter.

The extensive part of digestion occurs in the small intestine, where most essential nutrients are absorbed. The function of the large intestine in digestion is fundamental, as it absorbs water and is responsible for the excretion of waste.

The intestinal muscles It uses rhythmic contractions called peristalsis to move undigested food. It then absorbs it as food throughout the intestinal tract.

LIVER:

It is located on the right side of the abdominal cavity. Some of the important functions of the liver include filtering harmful substances from the blood. Maintain cholesterol and blood glucose level, secretion of certain amino acids. Store vitamins and minerals, secrete chemicals that break down fats, and convert glucose into glycogen, etc.

In addition to these, there are several internal organs in the human body, such as kidneys, bladder, pancreas, thymus, eyes, pituitary gland. Hypothalamus, spleen, appendix, adrenals, etc., including the different reproductive organs of men and women.

Study of the internal organs of the body, which is a part of human anatomy, is essential for any health discipline. Dysfunction of internal organs can be fatal and therefore it is important to understand their functions.

This will help you understand the Human Body well to keep it fit and healthy.

BODYBUILDING, A COMPLEMENTARY SPORT

One of the advantages of weight training is that it can be practiced as a complement to many other sports. In fact, it is a discipline that is perfectly associated with various branches, thus allowing you to improve your performance in that area. These are notably combat and resistance sports, which combine well with bodybuilding. The latter presents a non-negligible asset and guarantees a useful complement.

Bodybuilding and combat sports

For a long time, we believed that bodybuilding and combat sports were incompatible. Some people imagined that working with loads made them lose speed and dexterity, qualities essential to combat sports. However, many athletes nowadays find that practicing weight training improves their strength and reinforces the muscles that are useful for their respective practice.

Combining bodybuilding and combat sports then allows you to:

· acquire power (strength and speed)

· guarantee better stability, essential for this type of sport

· prevent injuries by strengthening muscles and joints

· relax your muscles during rest periods

· increase muscle mass whose aesthetic aspect is not negligible…

If you want to combine combat sports and bodybuilding, don't forget your objective, that is, to make bodybuilding compatible with improving sporting qualities and remaining in permanent contact with your favorite sport. You can alternate strength and power training, in addition to regularly practicing training circuits that work on endurance (starting your session with a ten-minute run, for example).

Don't carry too heavy weights and vary your training program. In this way, with 2 or 3 sessions a week, you will eliminate physical and psychological saturation, develop different skills and diversify your practice.

Bodybuilding and resistance sports Bodybuilding is also an excellent ally for those who practice resistance sports. It brings strength and solidity, with the condition of achieving a fair balance between the two disciplines. In fact, you need to avoid mixing them and practice them separately. Likewise, bodybuilders must practice regular cardio sessions, as weight training alone is harmful to resistance. Contrary to popular ideas, cardio-training is not harmful to muscle mass.

In general, weight training improves the performance of endurance athletes, whether cyclists or runners. It does not cause an increase in mass during running, but it improves anaerobic capacity, treading efficiency and performance. In cycling, weight training brings strength to the legs, more sprint performance and increases maximum effort time. It is also an excellent way to combat nervous fatigue.

Benefits of bodybuilding – Discover the 10 main ones

Everyone is going to the gym, that's a fact.

But few know the true benefits of exercising regularly.

Discover the 10 main benefits in this post:

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #1

Muscle toning: Strength training tones your muscles and helps you lose calories. Weight training further improves this muscular resistance.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #2

Helps prevent osteoporosis: people who practice bodybuilding have less chance of developing a disease called osteoporosis, as it helps to strengthen the bones of the human body.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #3

Increased strength: weight training makes a person stronger, helping with endurance for daily work and possible moments that require you to use strength.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #4

Strengthens the spinal region: helps prevent spinal problems, in addition to strengthening the lower back, reducing local pain.

Benefits

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of Bodybuilding – #5

Reduces the chances of diabetes: practicing physical exercise is a great ally in preventing diseases such as diabetes. Bodybuilding is one of the beneficial practices that can help prevent the onset of the disease and for those who already have diabetes, it can help treat and balance blood glucose levels.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #6

Improves the immune system: like other exercises, weight training also helps the immune system function.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #7

Benefits the digestive system: people who suffer from constipation may notice an improvement in intestinal function in the first few days of weight training, as it helps the digestive system function properly.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #8

Increases balance: weight training practiced regularly helps to improve the practitioner's balance and motor coordination.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #9

Helps during pregnancy: pregnant women who practice weight training have a better postpartum recovery, a lower incidence of cramps during pregnancy, a lower probability of developing varicose veins and they also reduce weight gain.

Benefits of Bodybuilding – #10

Improves mood: the practice of weight training improves mood, self-esteem and, therefore, social interactions.

Now that you know the main benefits, it’s time to get your hands dirty!

Let's do that crazy workout and take good care of your health

And to enjoy the trip, how about knowing the best sources of protein for gaining muscle mass?

Then connect:

ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES: HEALTH FOR BODY AND MIND

Taking care of your body and mind is fundamental to having quality of life. One of people's concerns is losing weight, and the way in which it is followed to achieve this goal can often bring harm to health. The search for healthy weight loss is becoming increasingly greater, and one of the alternative practices, that is, alternative medicine, which mainly takes care of the mind, which is a great ally during the weight loss process.

What are alternative therapies for weight loss

Alternative therapies work with the mind, reducing stress and fatigue. This type of therapy uses alternative techniques, which aim to reduce anxiety, without any type of short or long-term symptoms, where other means of weight loss cause symptoms, such as the use of weight loss medications. Anxiety is one of the causes of weight gain, and as alternative therapies work to reduce it, it makes the weight loss process easier.

Types of alternative therapies

The practice of alternative therapies has gained a large number of followers. Currently, there is a wide range of alternative therapies that are used to relieve stress. Here are some alternative therapies:

Acupuncture and acupressure: acupuncture is an alternative therapy that uses needles at points on the body to relieve tension. This technique is widely used in Chinese therapy. For the weight loss process, needles are placed in points related to digestion. Acupressure uses the same techniques as acupuncture, but it is done with the help of the hands, where pressure is used on specific points.

Hypnotherapy: hypnosis is used, where the psychologist tries to discover the problem and then starts to work on this fact to correct it. In the case of weight loss, it is used to detect blocking barriers that hinder the weight loss process, but it must be combined with the process of self-knowledge.

Aromatherapy: this therapy uses plant essence oils, which activate the areas of the brain responsible for emotions, mainly reducing anxiety. These oils can be used in massages, while bathing or even inhaled. For the effects of essential oils to be effective, they must be pure.

Yoga: yoga is one of the best known and most used alternative techniques. This technique is meditation that guarantees physical fitness and is associated with mental well-being. The therapy provides readjustment in posture, quality of breathing, in addition to improving the quality of sleep and concentration, reducing stress.

Do alternative therapies really help you lose weight?

Practicing alternative therapies alone does not promote weight loss. However, when combined with regular exercise and a balanced diet, weight loss becomes healthier.

Minerals

Minerals are inorganic chemical compounds that, when grouped together, give rise to different types of rocks.

by: Rodolfo F. Alves Pena in Physical Geography

Set of different minerals for economic use

Minerals are naturally formed inorganic chemical compounds that have a well-defined molecular structure. They can be formed on Earth or appear on the planet through meteorites and other special bodies.

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non-terrestrial acias.

Currently, there are more than four thousand minerals cataloged and, as geological studies advance, more and more minerals are being discovered, some of them of extraterrestrial origin. In January 2014, for example, a group of researchers discovered a new mineral present in a meteorite that had been collected in Antarctica in the 1960s.

The name of the mineral is Wassonite and it was only produced on Earth in laboratory research.

Atoms, in general, have a crystallized structure with an established chemical chain, responsible for giving this mineral its physical properties. As we have already mentioned, they are always of inorganic origin, so materials of organic origin are called mineraloids, such as pearl and amber.

Depending on their composition, minerals can be classified as metallic and non-metallic:

a) Metallic minerals: as the name suggests, they are those composed of metallic chemical elements. They tend to be good conductors of electricity. Examples: aluminum, iron, copper, etc.

b) Non-metallic minerals: are those not composed of metallic chemical elements, such as diamond, limestone and sand.

The study of minerals is complex. The observation of its characteristics follows some different criteria, namely:

1) Crystallization: corresponds to the three-dimensional geometric shape of the mineral.

2) Color: corresponds to the external color of the mineral, with the wavelengths absorbed by its chemical composition.

3) Transparency: ability of minerals to absorb light or not, and can be divided into translucent and opaque.

4) Brightness: amount of light reflected by the mineral.

5) Hardness: is the mineral’s ability to scratch and not be scratched.

6) Trace: the color of the mineral powder.

7) Fracture: is the irregular surface of the mineral resulting from its breakage.

8) Density: is the number of times that a mineral is heavier than an equal volume of water.

9) Cleavage: level of rupture of minerals on a flat or regular surface.

10) Electromagnetic properties: ability of minerals to conduct or not conduct electric current and their ability to relate to magnetism, among some other properties of a similar level.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM

Juliana Diana

Biology Professor and PhD in Knowledge Management

The Plant Kingdom, or Kingdom Plantae, is characterized by autotrophic organisms (they produce their own food) and chlorophylls.

Through sunlight, they carry out the process of photosynthesis and, for this reason, they are called photosynthetic beings.

It is worth remembering that photosynthesis is the process by which plants absorb solar energy to produce their own energy. This occurs through the action of chlorophyll (pigment associated with the green color of plants) present in their chloroplasts.

Plants form the base of the food chain. They are producers of organic matter and feed heterotrophic beings, that is, they represent the group responsible for the nutrition of various consuming organisms.

This indicates that without the existence of these autotrophic beings, life on earth would be impossible.

General Characteristics of the Vegetable Kingdom

Eukaryotes (organized nucleus)

Autotrophs (produce their own food)

Photosynthesis (production of photosynthesis)

· Multicellular (multicellular)

Cells made up of vacuoles, chloroplasts and cellulose

Know more:

· Chlorophyll

· Plant Hormones

· Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Beings

Plant Structure

Main structure of an angiosperm plant

With regard to their structure, plants are basically formed by the root (fixation and feeding), stem (support and transport of nutrients), leaves (photosynthesis), flowers (reproduction) and fruits (seed protection).

· Sheets

· Types of Roots

· Types of Fruit

· Stem Types

· Types of Flowers and their Functions

Classification of the Plant Kingdom

The Plant Kingdom is made up of vascular plants (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) that have sap-conducting vessels, and avascular plants (bryophytes), devoid of these vessels.

Bryophytes

Bryophytes

Bryophytes are small plants that do not receive direct sunlight, as they live in humid places, for example, mosses.

The reproduction of this group occurs through the process of metagenesis, that is, it has a sexual phase, producing gametes, and another asexual phase, producing spores.

Furthermore, they do not have sap-conducting vessels, which makes them distinct from other plant groups. Therefore, the transport of nutrients occurs through a slow process of cell diffusion.

Pteridophytes

staghorn

Pteridophytes have more variety than bryophytes. They are plants that, for the most part, are terrestrial and live in places with high humidity.

Some examples of this group: ferns, maidenhair and tree ferns.

They have sap-conducting vessels, roots, stems and leaves and, in the same way as bryophytes, the reproduction of these plants occurs through a sexual and

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another asexual.

When the stem of pteridophytes is underground, it is called a rhizome. Epiphytes are plants that support other plants, however, without causing them harm, such as ferns and deer antlers.

Gymnosperms

Araucaria

The group of gymnosperms is made up of a wide variety of trees and shrubs of different sizes.

They are vascular plants (presence of sap-conducting vessels), which have roots, stems, leaves and seeds. Some examples of gymnosperms: redwoods, pines, araucaria, among others.

The reproduction of Gymnosperms is sexual. Fertilization occurs in the female organs by pollen, which is produced by the male organs and transported with the help of nature through wind, rain, insects and birds.

What differentiates them from the group of Angiosperms are mainly their seeds, as they have so-called naked seeds, that is, not surrounded by the ovary.

Angiosperms

Angiosperms

Angiosperms are vascular plants, that is, they have conducting vessels. They inhabit different environments and represent a very varied group, made up of small and large plants.

Angiosperms characterize the largest group in the plant kingdom, with approximately 200 thousand species.

They are distinct from Gymnosperms in that their seeds are stored inside the fruit. Its reproduction is sexual and fertilization occurs with the presence of male pollen.

Curiosities

The Plant Kingdom is made up of approximately 400,000 known species, making it one of the largest groups of living beings.

Because they are self-sufficient organisms (autotrophs), plants were the first inhabitants of planet Earth.

Carnivorous plants

Carnivorous plant

Carnivorous or insectivorous plants are a curious case of the Plant Kingdom, as they have a peculiar characteristic that has attracted the attention of many scientists.

They also carry out photosynthesis, however, as they inhabit nutrient-poor soils, they seek nutritional supplementation through the digestion of some small animals. To do this, they usually capture small insects or, in some rarer cases, frogs, rats, small mammals and birds.

Parasitic Plants

Birdweed

They are known as parasitic plants of other vegetables because they need their sap for nutrition. They look to other photosynthetic organisms for the energy they need to survive, since they do not produce enough.

There are approximately 300 species with these characteristics, some of them are: birdwort, ghost plant, mistletoe, golden vine, among others

MINERAL KINGDOM

The mineral kingdom, different from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, is made up of everything that does not have life, for example, water, soil, gases, ores, rocks. The origin of minerals is characterized by the cooling of magma, precipitation of salts or the rearrangement of ions (metamorphism).

Characteristics of the Mineral Kingdom

· Inorganic Beings

· Absence of life

· Geometric order

· Durability, transparency, color, shine (rocks and ores)

· Solids and Crystalline (rocks and ores)

· Deprived of intelligence and extinct

Minerals

Minerals are solid, natural, inorganic substances, which have an internal arrangement (crystallization) characterized by determined physical and chemical properties that over the years were formed by the intervention of nature between temperature, heat, pressure, etc. In other words, minerals are chemical compounds formed by crystalline solids, divided into: metallic and non-metallic minerals.

1. Metallic minerals: these minerals have in their composition elements with physical-chemical characteristics of metals, for example, iron, copper, aluminum, among others.

2. Non-metallic minerals: This group is made up of ores that do not contain metal properties in their composition, for example, sand, diamond, limestone, among others.

Fossil Organic Materials

Called fossil energy resources, these ores are composed of elements of organic origin, for example, petroleum, natural gas, mineral oils, coal, resins, asphalt and bitumen.

Examples of Minerals

· Graphite

· Crystal

· Diamond

· Gold

· Silver

· Copper

· Quartz

· Feldspar

· Mica

· Tourmaline

Rocks

Rocks are natural and multigranular aggregates made up of two or more minerals and, according to their formation, the types of rock are:

1. Sedimentary Rocks: formed by the sedimentation of particles and organic matter, for example, sandstone.

2. Magmatic (Igneous) Rocks: formed by magma, for example, granite.

3. Metamorphic Rocks: undergo changes in their structure, for example, marble.

Rock Examples

· Granite

· Sandstone

· Marble

· Basalt

· Mylonite

· Rhyolite

· Coquinas

· Migmatites

Curiosities

· The science that studies minerals is called mineralogy.

· The study of crystals is called crystallography.

· Most minerals are formed by two or more elements, however there are minerals with

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nstituted by a chemical element such as gold (Au) and diamond (C).

· The term “ore” is used to indicate that a rock or mineral has economic importance, for example, bauxite, hematite, tourmaline and quartz.

· Water is considered a mineraloid, with characteristics similar to minerals.

Mercury is the only liquid mineral

GEOGRAPHY

THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

The classification of minerals is done as follows: metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals.

Diamond is a mineral

metallic ADVERTISING

Minerals are natural resources found underground and are of great value for industrial production as they serve as raw materials for the manufacture of consumer goods, such as household utensils, electrical wires, jewelry, construction materials, in addition to serving as a source of energy.

Cities are made up of built constructions, to create them it is necessary to extract a series of minerals from nature, in addition to by-products, such as bricks (clay), cement (limestone), hydraulic material (petroleum), sand and

many others.

In the industrial sector, everything from the machines used in production to the constructed product are extracted from mineral resources that are not the same in terms of physical and chemical composition, thus they are classified into two groups: metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals, including energy resources. fossils.

• Metallic minerals: which contain physical and chemical metal elements in their composition, which enable reasonable conduction of heat and electricity. Examples: Iron, aluminum and copper.

• Non-metallic minerals: ores that do not contain metal properties in their composition. Examples: diamond, limestone and sand, among others.

• Fossil energy resources: ores that contain elements of organic origin in their composition. Examples: oil, natural gas and coal.

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BIOLOGY

Kingdom Plantae

Plants belong to the Kingdom Plantae and are very important for maintaining life on Earth, as all living beings depend on them to survive.

Plants have different

Organisms in the Kingdom Plantae are multicellular, with eukaryotic cells. They are self-sufficient, that is, they produce their own food through photosynthesis, thus being called autotrophs. All plant cells have cellulose in their cell wall, vacuoles and chloroplasts inside.

Vegetables were the first colonizers of planet Earth. Thanks to their food self-sufficiency, they were able to conquer the environment. It is through plants that life on the planet is maintained.

Vegetables are classified according to the presence or absence of flowers. Plants that do not have flowers and whose reproductive structure is barely visible are called cryptogamous; and plants that have flowers and whose reproductive structure is clearly visible, we call phanerogams.

Plants, according to the presence or absence of conducting vessels, are classified into avascular and vascular plants.

Paula Louredo

Graduated in Biology

Find out what mineral salts are really good for...

Among the nutrients necessary for health, just as there are proteins, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins, there is a group of elements called minerals.

Minerals, as well as vitamins, cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, must be obtained through food. They do not provide calories, but are found in the body performing various functions.

Minerals have essential roles, as structural constituents of body tissues, for example, calcium and phosphorus that form bones and teeth; as organic regulators that control nerve impulses, muscle activity and the body's acid-base balance.

Furthermore, many minerals are involved in the process of body growth and development. As components of food, minerals participate in flavor, activate or inhibit enzymes and other reactions that influence the texture of food.

Theoretically, all foods should contain mineral salts, but industrialization and other modern food production methods can eliminate them.

Minerals are also important in sports, as during physical exercise the loss of water through sweat is always accompanied by the loss of electrolytes, salts, especially sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium and calcium. Thus, a lack of these can lead to the appearance of muscle cramps.

Well Star Team

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- Carcinogenic Dioxin

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CHOOSE TO LIVE BETTER AND HEALTHIER

TAKE CARE OF YOUR WELL-BEING

You don't have to be radical and give up the things you like to do and eat to be healthy. We just need to adapt our routine, incorporating important habits, such as doing physical activity regularly and eating with balance and discretion. After all, who can do more for your health than yourself?

FIND OUT WHAT PLANT ENZYMES ARE AND THEIR BENEFITS

Enzymes are organic substances with the function of catalyzing other chemical reactions and improving the production of other compounds essential for our health. Those of plant origin are extracted directly from fruits, vegetables, legumes and roots and can be found in ready-made liquid extracts with the following ingredients: watermelon, chayote, melon, papaya, pineapple, avocado, carrot, spinach, pear, cabbage, tomato, apple, banana, cucumber, guava, ginger, sprout

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of beans, celery, watercress and sucrose.

The enzyme extraction process is carried out through the natural fermentation of all ingredients without the addition of any chemical components during the process, so it is completely natural. With all these ingredients, the liquid extract is rich in vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and proteins, without any addition of chemical components.

Some of the extracted enzymes are:

· Papain – for treating ulcers, improves healing, anti-inflammatory and improves varicose veins.

· Bromelain – anti-inflammatory, increases immunity, accelerates healing, improves digestion, improves circulation and the cardiovascular system.

· Co-enzyme Q10 and betaine – improving muscle strength, improving the cardiovascular system, reducing the effects of stress and reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

Enzymes also help in the fight against the following diseases:

· Asthma.

· Rheumatism.

· Bronchitis.

· Skin diseases such as blemishes and pimples.

· Loss of hair.

· Liver and kidney diseases.

· Imbalance of the nervous system.

· High pressure.

The use of enzymes is only contraindicated for diabetics and people who are allergic to any compound in the ingredients.

It is recommended to ingest two tablespoons mixed in water, juices and other drinks. Three times a day: in the morning on an empty stomach and half an hour before meals (lunch and dinner).

You can find the liquid concentrate of plant enzymes in 500ml or 250ml at Relva Verde Natural Products Stores in Londrina and in our online store with delivery throughout Brazil.

6 NATURAL REMEDIES AGAINST AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES

· December 9, 2018

When our own body attacks us, it is necessary to look for alternatives so as not to lose our quality of life. We talk about autoimmune diseases.

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· Benefits of mint oil for body health

Below, we offer six natural remedies against autoimmune diseases that will help you improve your quality of life and increase your well-being.

Autoimmune diseases occur as a result of an error in the immune system. They attack the body's own cells. When this problem arises, there is usually an exaggerated response against the substances and tissues themselves. In other words, the body defends itself against itself.

Common symptoms

· Fatigue

· Fever

· Redness

· Swelling

· Chronic inflammation

· Muscle and joint pain

· Excessive heat, for no apparent reason

Six natural remedies against autoimmune diseases

Although autoimmune diseases are very diverse, there are some medications that will be very useful in improving patients' quality of life. Among the most common and effective are those that we will discuss below.

1. Drink tea

Green tea and black tea contain beneficial compounds such as flavonoids, catechins and theaflavins. These are excellent for combating and reducing the effects of autoimmune diseases.

As teas can bring a new flavor to your palate, it is advisable to incorporate them gradually. Otherwise, you may find their taste unpleasant and will stop taking them in a short space of time.

A good option to create a habit of drinking tea is to accompany it with fruit, such as citrus fruits or wild berries.

2. Eat more apples

Another natural remedy against autoimmune diseases is apples. These fruits are rich in quercetin. This element reduces allergic reactions and reduces inflammation, two common characteristics in autoimmune diseases. Quercetin can also be found in:

· Wild fruits

· Capers

· Red grapes

· Purple Onion

It is important to know that the highest percentage of quercetin is found in the skin of these foods. Therefore, you should avoid eating the apple without the peel.

3. Include more recipes with carrots in your diet

Carrots contain carotenoids, the plant pigments that include beta-carotene. The consumption of these foods corrects the deficiency and reduces

considerably inflammation. Other sources that contain carotenoids are:

· Sweet potato

· Apricot

· Spinach

· Pumpkin

· Cabbage

If the patient suffers from inflammation, they should try to include one of these foods in their daily diet. In a short time, the inflammation will subside.

4. Add some ginger

Ginger is a very beneficial root for the body and is another natural remedy against autoimmune diseases.

Helps reduce inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandins, suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory and chemokinetic cytokines. All of this means it reduces the impact of autoimmune diseases.

This food is especially recommended for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. You can include it in your diet or drink a cup of ginger tea a day.

5. More omega 3

Omega-3 is an essential fatty acid that balances the formation of chemical compounds that cause inflammation. This substance can be obtained through the following

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these foods:

· Chickpea

· Salmon

· Sardines

· Anchovies

· Nuts

· Linseed

· Soy

6. Include more fiber in your diet

With a healthy and active colon, it is possible to promote intestinal transit, which will undoubtedly alleviate the burden on the immune system.

For this to be possible, you must increase fiber consumption in your daily diet. The best type of fiber is that found naturally in:

· Fruits

· Whole grains

· Green leafy vegetables

Fiber is one of the best natural remedies against autoimmune diseases. It helps regulate the body while providing us with various nutrients.

Try to avoid consuming processed foods, even if the label indicates that they are rich in fiber. The problem with these products is that they are also rich in sugars and preservatives, two elements that will worsen problems.

Other measures to increase quality of life

1. Reduce stress

It is necessary to look for ways to get relief from daily stress. In this way, we can combat the problems caused by autoimmune diseases. The most effective methods are:

· Yoga

· Meditation

· Relaxing massages

· Other relaxation techniques

It would be good for the patient to practice several of these techniques during the week. Little by little, you will discover those that are most effective and those that provide the most immediate benefits. The secret is to keep trying until you find the ideal one for your particular case.

2. Get enough sleep

Getting enough rest is essential to combat the symptoms of autoimmune diseases. Keep in mind that insomnia or poor quality sleep can worsen other symptoms and, in some cases, make them worse.

Ideally, sleep 6 to 8 hours straight at night. If you have difficulty achieving this goal, try taking an infusion or exercising more during the day.

3. Maintain a healthy diet

A proper diet maintains good health and provides energy. Furthermore, it is capable of improving symptoms caused by autoimmune diseases. Food is essential for the body and the better the quality of the food, the greater the benefits.

Autoimmune diseases (AID) are becoming increasingly common, affecting most women in the world population, compared to men. In today's article it will be possible to understand better about them, as well as know their main causes, symptoms and forms of treatment, but before that it is necessary to understand once and for all what exactly an autoimmune disease is.

Firstly, it is important to know that there is a group made up of more than one hundred diseases that are considered autoimmune and we call it IAD. More succinctly, we must know in the first instance that the immune system is responsible for producing antibodies that protect our body from possible harmful external agents, as is the case with bacteria, for example. When one of these agents invades our body, the immune system automatically recognizes the invasion and produces antibodies that will destroy them, thus protecting our body. However, when there is an immunological disease at play, this defense system can no longer distinguish what is or is not part of the body itself and ends up producing antibodies to destroy its own organs and systems, as a form of protection, but that's not quite it. that happens.

In other words, the disease in question is a problem existing in an individual's immunity system, which instead of performing its primary function of protecting the body, does just the opposite: attacks it. That's why we say that IAD usually mutually attacks two or more organs or systems of a person or simply focuses on a single target. Below we will talk more about other aspects of autoimmune diseases. Find out more about the causes of autoimmune diseases, types, symptoms, how they are diagnosed and treatments to follow:

1. What causes autoimmune diseases?

A specific cause that leads to autoimmune diseases has not yet been discovered, however, some internal (body) and external (environment) factors may appear to trigger them, such as:

· Heredity/genetic predisposition to develop an autoimmune disease;

· Exposure to bacteria, viruses and/or toxins that the immune system did not combat correctly;

· Hormonal changes;

· Frequently weakened immune system;

· Stress;

· Medicines that destabilize the immune system;

· Excessive hygiene, which weakens the immune system, leading to infections.

2. Types of autoimmune diseases

In general, autoimmune diseases can affect organs and tissues such as the thyroid, kidneys, stomach, intestine, pancreas, joints, skin, platelets, etc. There are more than 100 types of autoimmune diseases, the best known of which are:

· Type 1 diabetes (affects the pancreas);

· Lupus (affects skin, kidneys, brain, joints);

· Psoriasis (affects the skin);

· Vitiligo (affects the skin);

· Rheumatoid arthritis (affects the joints);

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· Pernicious anemia (affects the stomach);

· Hemolytic anemia (affects the blood);

· Hashimoto's thyroiditis (affects the thyroid);

· Graves' disease (affects the thyroid);

· Multiple sclerosis (affects the brain and spinal cord);

· Crohn's disease (affects the digestive tract);

· Celiac disease (affects the intestine).

3. What are the symptoms?

When it comes to autoimmune disease, there is no way to give precision about the symptoms that actually reflect its existence in an individual's body. The same disease can present different symptoms in two people, so this imprecision makes it more difficult to diagnose the problem, taking on average approximately five years for someone to be diagnosed with an IAD.

Below we will list some of the most common symptoms that may arise in cases of this type, but remember, be aware of their frequency and duration, and of course, always seek a professional to clarify your case safely. The symptoms are:

· Headache (Headache);

· Anxiety attacks;

· Some type of mental confusion;

· Difficulty maintaining attention (deficit);

· Emergence of acne;

· Red spots on the skin, peeling or not;

· Emergence of Psoriasis;

· Eczema;

· Problems with dermatitis and allergies in general;

· Symptoms of dry mouth;

· Colds that occur frequently;

· Increase or decrease in weight;

· Asthma;

· Diarrhea and gas;

· Problems with cramps in the stomach region;

· Appearance of stiffness and pain similar to fibromyalgia symptoms;

· Constipation;

· Feeling of a bloated stomach.

There are still many other factors that can be considered as symptoms of IAD, however, as it was possible to see, most of the aforementioned symptoms are common to several diseases, which makes the diagnosis process difficult. The important thing is to always see a doctor if symptoms persist, as the body may be giving you a warning about this or another possible disease. Stay tuned!

4. How is an autoimmune disease diagnosed?

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Because many symptoms are confused with other diseases, diagnosing autoimmune diseases can be difficult. Doctors generally suspect an autoimmune disease because it is something that affects multiple organs.

Furthermore, a single test cannot detect the presence of an autoimmune disease, requiring a more complex investigation. The doctor assesses the condition based on the patient's complaints and history, performs a physical examination and requests some additional tests that will depend on the cause of the disease, such as, for example, a complete blood test and antibody test (antinuclear factor).

5. Treatments

And when diagnosed, does autoimmune disease have treatment? Of course. Although there is no cure, it is possible to treat it and ensure that your immune system does not harm you, as occurs in these cases. And just as there are several of these diseases, there is no standard treatment model that works for all of them. What generally occurs is treatment using immunosuppressive drugs, such as corticosteroids, which are capable of inhibiting an individual's immune system.

The big negative factor of this type of treatment is precisely the fact that these drugs do not only target the antibodies that cause damage to the body, but also all the others that would supposedly be beneficial, and this means that patients receiving treatments for autoimmune diseases are left with greater chances of contracting infections, bacteria and even fungi. But treatment is important and crucial for the individual to survive a disease of this kind.

Therefore, if you present more than one of the symptoms exposed here, be sure to go to a professional so that they can clarify your case and if by chance there is a diagnosis of an autoimmune disease, make sure you carry out the treatment correctly and do not Don't worry, you'll be able to live normally, you just can't stop taking care of yourself, okay? You can't play with your health and it is certainly the greatest treasure you can have in life.

6. Home remedies for autoimmune diseases

· Turmeric – Turmeric contains a substance called curcumin that suppresses enzymes that increase inflammation in autoimmune diseases such as arthritis, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Boil a glass of milk, add a teaspoon of turmeric powder and take it 3 times a day with meals.

· Ginger – The anti-inflammatory properties in ginger can also help deal with autoimmune diseases. It helps reduce inflammation, which is a common problem in autoimmune diseases. Boil a glass of water, add a teaspoon of crushed ginger. Drink the tea 2 to 3 times a day.

· Coconut oil – a study proved that virgin coconut oil has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties

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s. Take 2 tablespoons of coconut oil to combat inflammation.

· Aloe Verda or Aloe vera – aloe vera contains lupeol and salicylic acid which have analgesic properties, as well as certain chemical compounds such as fatty acids which have an anti-inflammatory effect on arthritis. Mix 2 tablespoons of aloe vera with lemon juice and drink 1 glass a day.

· Pineapple – pineapple contains a class of enzymes called bromelain which has anti-inflammatory properties. For more effectiveness, mix pineapple juice with 3 teaspoons of turmeric.

· Fish oil – Fish oil contains essential fatty acids with anti-inflammatory properties that relieve joint pain, stiffness and even reduce dependence on medication in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Consume one 500mg capsule per day.

· Cayenne pepper – when you consume pepper, the property called capsaicin inhibits the activity of a chemical in your body responsible for transmitting pain signals to the brain. For this reason, cayenne pepper has been effective in treating rheumatoid arthritis and spinal spondylitis pain. Furthermore, it also improves general blood circulation that lubricates stiff backs and joints. Mix a tablespoon of crushed cayenne pepper with honey and take 2 to 3 times a day.

· Apple Cider Vinegar – Apple cider vinegar is beneficial for autoimmune diseases. It contains vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) which helps reduce swelling and inflammation. Calcium, manganese, potassium and phosphorus

make joint pain even easier. Mix a tablespoon of apple cider vinegar in a glass of hot water. Then add honey and ginger, and drink it twice a day.

· Cinnamon – a study published that cinnamon is an effective anti-inflammatory medicine in the treatment of chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Mix a teaspoon of cinnamon powder and honey in a glass of hot water. Drink daily.

· Oregano oil – the anti-inflammatory properties of oregano oil are also important for treating autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and spondylitis. Add 3 or 4 drops of oregano oil to a glass of water or juice and drink 3 times a day.

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

WHAT IS AN ATOM?

The atom is a structure (composed of proton, neutron, electron, nucleus, levels, sublevels and orbitals) that forms matter.

Atom is the name given to the creator of matter (everything that occupies space and has mass). This name was proposed by the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus. Chemical elements, molecules, substances and organic or inorganic materials are formed by atoms.

In its constitution, the atom has particles (protons, neutrons and electrons), which are not the smallest part of matter. However, viewing it is not possible. What is known about the atom is related to physical, chemical experiments and scientifically proven mathematical aspects.

The evolution of knowledge about the atom has led to several technologies being developed and improved.

Basic composition of an atom

· Nucleus: densest region of the atom and contains protons and neutrons;

· Energy levels: regions surrounding the nucleus and housing sublevels, orbitals and electrons. There are seven energy levels, which are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q;

· Energy sublevels: these are regions that house the orbitals. They are present at all levels and are represented by letters (s, p, d f). Its quantity depends on each level: K (has sublevels s), L (has sublevels s and p), M (has sublevels s, p and d), N (has sublevels s, p, d and f), O (has sublevels s, p, d and f ), P (has sublevels s, p and d) and Q (has sublevels s and p);

· Atomic orbitals: regions with the highest probability of finding an electron. Each sublevel has a different number of orbitals: s (one orbital), p (three orbitals), d (five orbitals) and f (seven orbitals);

· Protons: positive particles (represented by p);

· Electrons: negative particles that also exhibit wave behavior (represented by e);

· Neutrons: uncharged particles that reduce the repulsion between protons in the nucleus (represented by n).

Mind Map: Atom

Representation of an atom

The simplest way to represent an atom is using the acronym of the chemical element it forms. The acronym Se, for example, represents all the atoms that form the chemical element selenium.

The acronym that represents the atom can also provide two important pieces of information: the atomic number (represented by the letter Z and always on the lower left side of the atom's acronym) and the mass number (represented by the letter A, which can be positioned on the left side or right at the top of the atom acronym).

Acronym for an atom with mass number and atomic number

· Atomic number (Z): indicates the number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom and the number of electrons (e) present in the energy levels.

· Mass number (A): indicates the mass present in the nucleus of the atom, which results from the

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ome of the number of protons (p) and the number of neutrons (n).

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Formula that indicates the representativeness of the mass number

Atomic similarities

Atoms of the same chemical element or of different chemical elements can be compared in terms of the number of protons, electrons, neutrons and mass, being classified as follows:

a) Isotopes

They are atoms that have:

· same atomic number;

· same number of protons;

· different mass number;

· different number of neutrons;

Example:

Atoms A and B are isotopes Atoms A and B are isotopes because:

· Atom A has 15 protons, atomic number equal to 15, 15 electrons, 15 neutrons and mass number equal to 30.

· Atom B has 15 protons, atomic number equal to 15, 15 electrons, 20 neutrons and mass number equal to 35.

b) Isobars

They are atoms that have:

· different atomic numbers;

· different numbers of protons;

· different numbers of electrons;

· same mass numbers;

· different numbers of neutrons.

Example:

Atoms C and D are isobars Atoms C and D are isobars because:

· Atom C has 32 protons, atomic number equal to 32, 32 electrons, 23 neutrons and mass number equal to 55.

· Atom D has 37 protons, atomic number equal to 37, 37 electrons, 18 neutrons and mass number equal to 55.

c) Isotones

These are atoms that have:

· different atomic numbers;

· different numbers of protons;

· different numbers of electrons;

· different mass numbers;

the same number of neutrons.

Example:

Atoms E and F are isotones Atoms E and F are isotones because:

· Atom E has 20 protons, atomic number equal to 20, 20 electrons, 20 neutrons and mass number equal to 40.

· Atom F has 30 protons, atomic number equal to 30, 30 electrons, 20 neutrons and mass number equal to 50.

d) Isoelectronic

These are atoms that have:

same number of electrons.

NOTE: isoelectronic atoms can also have the same mass number (isobars), the same number of neutrons (isotones) or the same number of protons (isotopes).

Example:

Atoms G and H are isoelectronic Atoms G and H are isoelectronic because:

· Atom G has 16 protons, atomic number equal to 16, 18 electrons (the -2 sign indicates that it has two more electrons than the number of protons), 17 neutrons and mass number equal to 33.

· Atom H has 21 protons, atomic number equal to 21, 18 electrons (the sign +3 indicates that it has three electrons less than the number of protons), 27 neutrons and mass number equal to 48.

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Chemical elements are groups of atoms that have the same number of protons inside their nuclei.

Published by: Diogo Lopes Dias in Chemistry

The Periodic Table results from the organization of chemical elements

A chemical element is defined as a set of atoms that have the same number of protons inside their nucleus, that is, atoms with the same atomic number (characteristic represented by the letter Z). Chemical elements can also be called simple substances.

A very important fact about the definition given to a chemical element is that, under no circumstances, it can undergo decomposition, that is, it cannot give rise to new simple substances, it only participates in the formation of new compound substances.

An example is sodium chloride, which, as it is a compound substance, can be decomposed into the simple substance sodium (Na) and the simple substance chlorine (Cl2) through igneous electrolysis. This fact cannot occur with Neon gas (Ne), for example, which is a chemical element and, consequently, a simple substance.

It is important to emphasize that an isolated atom also represents a chemical element. In the formula for water (H2O), for example, we have two atoms that represent the element hydrogen and one atom that represents the element oxygen.

Chemical elements are represented by an acronym, in which the initial letter is capitalized and which may be accompanied by one or two lowercase letters. In this acronym, we must position the atomic number on the lower left side, as represented below:

ZX

The acronym for the name of the element can refer to different aspects, such as the name of the element in Latin, the name of the element in another language, the name of the discoverer, tribute to a scientist, location of discovery, etc. See some examples:

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· Beryllium - Acronym Be, which comes from the Greek Beryllos;

· Boron - Acronym B, which comes from its name in Arabic (buraq) and Persian (burah);

· Cobalt - Acronym Co, which comes from the German kobalt or kobold (evil spirit or demon of the mines). It received this name because of its toxicity;

· Sodium - Acronym Na, which comes from the Latin Natrium;

This article provides information about how the chemical element Beryllium manifests itself in nature, its applications and how it is highly toxic.

· Strontium - Acronym Sr, in honor of a Scottish village called Strotian;

Lithium - Acronym Li, which comes from the Greek Lithos

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(stone);

· Magnesium - Acronym Mg, called Magnesia in Greek in reference to the region of Thessaly;

· Roentgênio - Acronym Rg, a tribute to the scientist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, who discovered the X-ray;

· Californio - Acronym Cf, named after the University of California, where it was synthesized.

There are several chemical elements currently known. They are organized in increasing order of atomic number in the famous Periodic Table, proposed by Moseley in 1913. Regardless of whether they are natural or synthetic, many of the chemical elements are extremely important, as they are part of the composition of thousands of chemical substances that involve life. and the daily life of human beings.

We created a space for you to have access to texts that talk about the characteristics, functions, origins, uses and ways of obtaining various chemical elements. Be sure to check out the texts below!

Happy studying!

Articles from "Chemical Elements"

Beryllium

· Boron Click here and learn about the characteristics and use of Boron. · Carbon

· Chlorine

Click and learn about the characteristics, uses and physical and chemical properties of chlorine and find out how this chemical element is produced.

· Cobalt

Check here the importance of cobalt for our body and in which other situations this element is used.

· Element 111: Roentgenium

Click here and learn about the main characteristics of Roentgênio, a relatively new element.

· Calcium element

Find out the percentage of this element on the Earth and the Moon.

· Magnesium element

Where can it be found and what are its main functions.

· Sodium element

Discover the main characteristics and uses of sodium!

· Artificial Elements

Artificial Elements are atoms of chemical elements not found on the Earth's surface and that were synthesized, that is, created in the laboratory.

· Natural and synthetic elements

Check out the main characteristics of natural and synthetic elements here!

· Sulfur

Learn a little more about carbon and its allotropic forms, where it is found and its applications in everyday life.

· Strontium

Metal used in cathode ray tubes for color televisions.

· Insoluble iron: properties of this element

The solubility of metals in water.

· Argon gas

Gas used in the conservation of oxidizable materials.

· Krypton Gas

Check out the characteristics and applications of krypton gas here!

· Neon gas

Click here and understand how neon gas is obtained, and also see where it is commonly used!

· Hydrogen

Click and learn about the history, characteristics, ways of obtaining and the main uses of the chemical element Hydrogen.

· Iodine

Check out the importance of iodine for the body and which foods are sources of this mineral!

· Lithium

Discover the properties and uses of the lightest metal there is.

Mercury Metal

Be aware of the dangers posed by this heavy metal.

· Nickel

The toxic effects of this metal on our body.

Click and learn everything (atomic characteristics, ways of obtaining, properties) about the chemical element sulfur.

Click and learn everything about the element Nitrogen, as well as the forms in which it can be found in nature.

Access this link to learn about the main characteristics of the most abundant element on the Earth's surface, oxygen. Learn about the properties and particularities of its atoms, the importance of its allotropic forms, in addition to the applications of this element in general.

Click and learn about the atomic and physical characteristics, history, obtaining and uses of the chemical element Platinum!

In nature, potassium is a metal, in our body it is a mineral. Click and understand!

Radon, family of noble gases, decay of uranium-238, Location of radon in the periodic table, Occurrence of radon in nature, Physical characteristics of Radon, Applications of Radon.

PHYSIOLOGY

Learn more about Physiology, the study of the functions of living beings

Physiology: study of the functions of living beings

What is Physiology

Physiology is a biological science that studies the functions (physical, organic, biochemical) of living beings. The word is of Greek origin, where physis means nature and logos means study or knowledge.

Physiology brings together important principles of physics, chemistry and mathematics, giving meaning to the interactions of the basic elements of a living being with the environment.

There are three main areas of physiology:

- Animal physiology (includes human physiology)

- Plant physiology

- Bacterial physiology

Vital functions

Written by Débora Silva On 06/18/2015 (update: 07/27/2015) Report error

Vital functions refer to the necessary functions performed by every living being to maintain life. Even unicellular living beings can also perform vital functions, as the only existing cell can perform them independently.

There are three major vital functions: nutrition, reproduction and relationship with the environment.

Great functions

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vital s Nutrition

Nutrition encompasses all the activities that living beings carry out to obtain the matter and energy essential for life. Nutrition is made up of several factors:

– Food: The survival of living beings is only possible with the ingestion of foods that provide the proteins and nutrients necessary for their development. There are two types of nutrition: heterotrophic and autotrophic. The first of them is used by humans and animals and is based on the manufacture of matter from organic matter. That is, food is digested and reduced to simple molecules. The digestive system is fundamental, carrying out digestion, which is a chemical and mechanical process in which nutrient molecules, such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids, are broken down.

The second type of nutrition is used by plants and consists of the creation of organic matter from inorganic matter, through photosynthesis.

– Circulation: Circulation is essential for matter to reach all parts of the body. Circulation is carried out by blood tissue and blood circulates through vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries. Human circulation is double, closed and complete.

– Excretion: Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste resulting from chemical reactions in the body’s cells. These residues, such as ammonia, urea and uric acid, cannot remain in the bloodstream as they are toxic. In the case of humans and animals, waste is eliminated through urine and feces, thanks to the excretory system.

– Breathing: Breathing is part of nutrition because it is the metabolic process that allows us to create and maintain the energy we obtain through food. It is represented by the processes of inspiration (entry of oxygen into the body) and expiration (expulsion of carbon dioxide). The respiratory system is made up of the airways through the lungs.

Photo: Reproduction Reproduction

Reproduction is the vital function that guarantees the survival of the species by passing genes to future generations. There are two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is one that requires two individuals of the opposite sex and is carried out by the union of sex cells (eggs and sperm), or gametes, from each individual, which is called fertilization. Asexual reproduction is typical of unicellular beings, in which only one individual intervenes.

PHYSIOLOGY

Human Vital Functions

Check out the vital functions for the functioning of the human machine: Digestion

Chemical and mechanical process, where nutrient molecules are broken down. These nutrients are lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The path of food is as follows: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine (jejunum), large intestine and rectum, where feces come out.

Bile, produced by the liver, emulsifies fats, facilitating the action of lipases. The hormones involved in digestion are: Gastrin, secretin,

cholecystokinin and enterogastrone. All secreted by epithelial cells of the digestive tract.

The intestinal folds or villi are formed by blood and lymphatic vessels, connective tissue and epithelial tissue with microvilli, which increase the absorption surface.

Tips: Remember that gastric enzymes (from the stomach) do not break down carbohydrates, but only proteins, through the action of pepsin, which is activated by HCl in gastric juice.

Trypsin and chymotrypsin are initially in the form of trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, which are activated by enterokinase in the duodenum, when pancreatic juice is released there.

Monosaccharides are obtained from disaccharides in the small intestine by the action of enteric enzymes: maltase, lactase and sucrase.

All food is used as a source of energy or construction of living matter. Whatever is in excess will be stored in the form of lipids, in adipocytes (fat or adipose tissue cells). When there is a lack of nutrients, fats begin to be mobilized as a source of energy and the person loses weight.

Digestive Tract Problems:

Peptic ulcer – caused by medications or the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, there is a failure in the defense of the lining of the stomach or duodenum and gastric acidity attacks this lining and lesions and wounds appear, which

cause pain and heartburn; Constipation occurs when the peristaltic movements of the intestine are very slow, and waste remains in the intestine for a long time, where it hardens due to the large reabsorption of water; Diarrhea occurs when the small intestine becomes irritated and peristaltic movements become too rapid.

Liver functions: store glucose in the form of glycogen, store some vitamins, transform carbohydrates into lipids and proteins, produce bile, among others…

Excretion:

Elimination of metabolic waste resulting from chemical reactions in the body's cells. Such nitrogenous excreta cannot remain in the ci

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blood circulation as they are toxic. They can be ammonia, urea and uric acid.

· Ammoniotelic animals: excrete ammonia as it is a substance that is very soluble in water;

· Uricotelic animals: excrete uric acid, which is very poorly soluble and does not require a significant amount of water;

· Uriotelic animals: excrete urea, which requires a small amount of water and is well adapted to human excretion, as we need to save as much water as possible.

Our excretion is done through the nephrons, which are the filtering unit of the kidneys. There are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Our kidney is of the metanephros type, as it removes all metabolites directly from the blood. 99% of the water is reabsorbed and urine is formed in the collecting duct, stored in the bladder and released through the urethra.

Tip: Two hormones act on human excretion: aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is released by the pituitary gland and facilitates water reabsorption in the nephrons. Alcohol inhibits ADH, producing more dilute and abundant urine. Aldosterone, from the adrenal glands, increases the reabsorption of ions in the nephron tubules and therefore acts on the osmotic control of the blood.

Urinary Tract Problems:

Uremia – increase in the level of urea in the blood; Glomerulonephritis – inflammation of the glomeruli.

Kidney stones – accumulation of mineral salt crystals in the kidneys, and the chance increases due to low water intake.

Breathing

Represented by the processes of inspiration and expiration. The Respiratory System is made up of the airways and lungs. Inspired air, rich in oxygen, fills the lungs at the level of the alveoli (sacs where gas exchange with the blood occurs (hematosis). The lungs are protected by the rib cage, formed by the Sternum and the ribs. Movements are made by the Diaphragm and the intercostal muscles.

When we inhale, the box expands and the diaphragm descends, allowing air to enter. When we exhale, the chest returns to normal and the diaphragm rises again, expelling air, full of carbon dioxide. Blood must nourish the tissues and therefore carries nutrients and respiratory gases. When it reaches the cells of different tissues, an exchange occurs between them and arterial blood, which releases oxygen and receives carbon dioxide, which is carried mainly in the form of bicarbonate ions, but is also taken dissolved in plasma and linked to hemoglobin. .

Carbonic anhydrase is the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of water with carbon dioxide in the blood. Hemoglobin is the pigment in red blood cells that gives them their characteristic color and through its Iron ions, they carry inspired oxygen to all cells in the body. This oxygen will be used for cellular respiration, with an energy balance of 38 ATPs.

Tip: CO (carbon monoxide), an odorless gas, forms a highly stable bond with hemoglobin, making it unable to transport oxygen. If the individual is exposed to CO for a prolonged period, they can die from asphyxiation.

At higher altitudes, the air is thinner and oxygen availability is lower. People who live at sea level, when they climb to such altitudes, feel the impact of the lack of oxygen. The body, to make up for this deficiency, begins to produce more red blood cells in the bone marrow, through the action of the hormone Erythropoietin and, therefore, there will be a greater number of hemoglobin molecules to capture more oxygen.

Respiratory Tract Problems:

Flu and colds – caused by viruses, which attack the respiratory tract, nasal sinuses and ears;

Tuberculosis and pneumonia – caused by bacteria. The trachea and bronchi can become inflamed, which can cause acute bronchitis, which can reach the lungs – bronchopneumonia. Chronic bronchitis occurs due to constant irritation of the airways due to smoking, allergies and air pollution. Emphysema is a progressive destruction of the alveoli, caused mainly by smoking. Asthma is an inflammatory reaction in the bronchi, with edema, hypersecretion of mucus and contraction of smooth muscles, causing shortness of breath.

Circulation:

Circulation is done through blood tissue. Blood circulates through vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries. Human circulation is double, closed and complete. Blood passes through the heart twice in a complete circuit that lasts about 1 minute. The heart is made up of four cavities: two atria and two ventricles.

The right atrium receives venous blood from the body through the vena cava. The right ventricle pumps this blood to the lungs, where hematosis occurs, through the pulmonary artery. Arterial blood enters the left atrium and is pumped to the body through left ventricular systole and leaves the heart to the body through the Aorta and Carotid arteries.

The cavities are separated by valves and there are also valves between the ventricles and the vessels through which the blood exits. The myocardium is the heart muscle (striated cardiac muscles – involuntary movements). He has a certain independence from

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to the nervous system, as it allows the heartbeat through bundles of cells that transmit an electrical impulse allowing the systole and diastole movements of both atria and both ventricles. They are the sinoatrial node; the atrioventricular node; the Hiss bundle and Purkinje fibers.

Arterial blood carries nutrients, respiratory gases and hormones to the tissues and collects excreta and carbon dioxide. The exchange occurs at the level of capillaries, very thin vessels, and what leaks out and does not return due to the difference in pressure in the arterial and venous part of the capillary, is collected by the lymphatic circulation, which also transports lymphocytes, the body's defense cells. What is collected is later taken back to the blood through the subclavian veins.

Tip: A vein is every vessel that enters the heart and artery, everything that leaves the heart, regardless of the type of blood it carries (arterial or venous).

Circulatory Tract Problems:

· Atherosclerosis – hardening of blood vessels due to the deposition of fatty plaques (atheroma);

· Ischemia – difficulty transporting oxygen and oxygenating cells in general;

· Thrombosis – clogging of a vessel, preventing the passage of blood;

· Stroke (CVA) – rupture of an artery in the brain due to a sudden increase in blood pressure;

· Heart attack – death of the myocardium due to blockage of the arteries that supply the heart, the coronary arteries. Symptoms are angina pectoris (pain in the left chest that radiates to the arm), pain in the back of the neck, sweating and difficulty breathing.

Causes of heart and circulatory problems: Sedentary lifestyle (lack of physical exercise), obesity, diet rich in animal fat and trans fat, smoking, stress, depression and use of anabolic steroids.

GENES

What are genes, heredity, human genome, genetics, DNA and RNA, chromosomes

Genes: the code of life

The gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Each gene is made up of a specific sequence of nucleic acids (the most important biomolecules in cellular control, as they contain genetic information. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA- and ribonucleic acid – RNA).

Functions, location and other information

Genes control not only the structure and metabolic functions of cells, but also the entire organism. When located in reproductive cells, they pass their information to the next generation.

Chemically, each gene is made up of a DNA sequence that forms nucleotides (energy-rich compounds that help metabolic processes, mainly biosynthesis in most cells).

Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose (sugar with five carbon atoms) and a phosphate group. Nitrogenous bases can be classified into: pyrimidines and purines.

The gene is generally located interspersed with non-protein-coding DNA sequences. These sequences are referred to as “useless DNA”. When this type of DNA occurs within a gene, the coding portion is classified as the non-coding part.

Useless DNA makes up 97% of the human genome and, despite its name, it is necessary for genes to function properly.

In each species there is a defined number of chromosomes. Changes in the number or arrangement of genes can result in genetic mutations.

When mutations occur in germ cells (egg or sperm), the changes can be passed on to future generations. Mutations that affect somatic cells can result in certain types of cancer.

The genetic constitution of an organism (genotype) plus the influence received from the environment will be responsible for the phenotype, that is, the observable characteristics of the individual.

The sum total of genes is called the genome. Research carried out with the aim of identifying the location and function of each gene is known as the human genome.

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry studies the transformations involving matter and energy.

Chemistry is a branch of Natural Sciences that studies matter, its properties, constitution, transformations and the energy involved in these processes.

Matter is the main object of study in Chemistry and can be defined as everything that occupies space in space and has mass, that is, the entire material world around us and even ourselves.

Regardless of format, origin (present on our planet or in the universe) or whether alive or dead, there is no material that is beyond the reach of Chemistry.

Chemistry has a huge impact on technology and our society, as its studies play a fundamental role in the development of all branches of science. After all, it is through the study of matter that we can understand the properties and possible transformations that each substance can undergo and then use this knowledge to our benefit.

Biochemistry is the part of Biology responsible for the study of

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ures, organization and molecular transformations that occur in the cell. These transformations configure what we call metabolism, which is nothing more than extremely coordinated reactions that are fundamental to guarantee the survival, growth and reproduction of living organisms.

Metabolism is generally classified into anabolism or catabolism. In the first case, chemical reactions are aimed at the synthesis of complex molecular structures from simple molecules. In the case of catabolism, complex molecules are degraded into simpler structures. It is worth noting that both processes occur in all living cells.

→ Biochemical processes of living beings

At the biochemical level, despite the great diversity of life forms, many structures and processes are shared by very different living beings, which facilitates the understanding of life as a whole. All species, for example, are made up of basic elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and complex molecules, which carry out chemical processes so that the energy necessary for survival is produced.

In general, we can say that all organisms carry out four basic biochemical processes to maintain life:

→ Synthesis of biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids;

→ Transport of substances through membranes;

→ Energy production;

→ Elimination of metabolites and toxic substances.

→ Biochemical discoveries

Among the main discoveries in Biochemistry that deserve to be highlighted, we can mention the understanding of the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the understanding of the importance of genes for protein synthesis, the determination of the structure of proteins and the understanding of metabolic pathways.

Understanding these processes was, without a doubt, fundamental for the development of several areas, such as biotechnology, medicine and agriculture. In the field of medicine, for example, we can highlight the importance of this science in advancing genetics and understanding metabolic diseases, such as diabetes, and even degenerative problems. In the field of agriculture, the development of transgenic varieties guaranteed greater success in crops.

It can be seen, therefore, that Biochemistry is nothing more than the study of the chemistry involved in all living beings, and is therefore fundamental for understanding the processes that allow the maintenance of life and the development of techniques that guarantee a better quality of life for everyone. It is worth highlighting that, despite the great development of the area, much still needs to be studied, and constant investment in this field of studies is essential.

Check out the texts below to delve deeper into the chemistry of life! Good studies!!!

By Ma. Vanessa dos Santos

ALCHEMY

By Ana Lucia Santana

Alchemy is an ancestral practice, the ancient chemistry practiced in the Medieval Era. It unites in its broad cognitive spectrum notions of chemistry, physics, astrology, art, metallurgy, medicine, mysticism and religion. The most widespread belief is that alchemists seek to find in the Philosopher's Stone, a mythical substance, the power to transform everything into gold and, even more, to provide whoever finds it with eternal life and a cure for all ills.

According to researchers, however, Alchemy goes further. Its goals have a symbolic value, which means that its practitioners actually aim for something greater – spiritual transmutation. Therefore, the famous Elixir of Long Life would be nothing more than a resource specific to the human organism, capable of granting those who carry out the long process of spiritual purification a life extended to infinity. It is stated that this substance is also an important point in the philosophy of Yoga.

Alchemists sought to intensify the search for this Elixir through laboratory experiments that used the four elements, essential in alchemical work: fire, water, earth and air. In the extreme observation of Nature and its components, alchemists achieved very important knowledge, some of which were only recently taken up by Quantum Physics, such as the evidence that all things are interconnected in the Cosmos. This holistic vision contributed greatly to the cures carried out by the Swiss doctor Philippus Paracelsus, who in his mission as a healer started from this point of view. He believed that substances such as salt, mercury and sulfur permeate all living beings, even the human organism.

Currently, this same belief is rescued by Anthroposophy, a spiritualist current that also compares concepts of Alchemy with active forces of the soul – thought would correspond to salt; the feeling to mercury and the desire to sulfur. Some of their thinkers see the gold pursued by alchemists as a representation of the 'self', the human essence.

Although Alchemy is not currently considered

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gives a Science, as scientific knowledge is conceived today, but rather a spiritual vision more concerned with ancient traditions than with the discovery of

news, it is considered an ancestor of modern Chemistry and Medicine itself. In addition to the chemical experiments carried out by alchemists, there was a constant concern with carrying out a series of rites.

Alchemy also dealt with some points of Kabbalah and Magic, in addition to cultivating a hermetic philosophy. From Kabbalistic theory, Alchemy inherited the search for the harmony of opposites. The Philosopher's Stone could therefore be the search for perfection, which could not be achieved without the balance between the polarities that Man has. Therefore, the manipulation of metals would be a symbol of the spiritual metamorphosis that each living being goes through. But there are many interpretations of alchemical texts, and to this day no consensus has been reached on the real meaning of the symbols of Alchemy. Filed under: Philosophy, Chemistry

The Secret of Alchemy

Paracelsus simplifies the mysterious, magical and supernatural concept of alchemy and clarifies: “The baker who converts flour into bread, the one who makes wine and who weaves thread with his spinning wheel is also an alchemist.”

Alchemy is the mother of chemistry, allopathy and homeopathy, but it differs completely from the current meaning of pharmacy and laboratory.

Alchemy is physical, psychic and spiritual. It gives a divinizing and humanizing meaning to everything.

As alchemy is the greatest treatise in hermetic philosophy, it is based on immutable principles, which are the states of matter: the volatile, which goes beyond the gaseous state, the solid, the liquid and the pasty.

It is the “tree” that best represents it: the tree’s life begins in a volatile state, where the pollen from its flowers is transported through the air. It is solid in the consistency of its trunk. It becomes pasty in its sap, its resin, its milk, its latex. It becomes liquid in coconut water and fruit juice. It is animal in part of its composition. It is a mineral that becomes stone when it is transformed into amber, when incense is made. He is a magician, human and divine, due to his alchemical function.

The phrase that symbolizes alchemy: “solvite corpora et coagulate spiritum” (dissolve the body and coagulate the spirit).

No other science allows us to achieve this type of transmutation, metamorphosis.

The secret lies in the same process that differentiates the brain from the computer.

The computer only knows what is programmed.

As for the brain, what we program with knowledge ferments and resonates throughout the body, mind and soul. As it is a universal treatise, it can extract the essence of a star, a plant, a mineral or a man.

The spirit is solar, the body is terrestrial and the soul is the alchemical fusion of body and spirit.

Also: mercury, sulfur and salt give us an equivalence with the trinity or “trimurty”.

Mercury is the creator.

Sulfur is the conservative. Salt is the transmuter.

To transform lead into gold, that is, negative into positive: 1888948 – 71931

METAPHYSICS

Juliana Bezerra

History teacher

Metaphysics is the basis of Philosophy and also the branch responsible for the study of the existence of being.

Through metaphysics, an interpretation of the world is sought, regarding the nature, constitution and basic structures of reality.

What is it?

The word metaphysics comes from the Greek and the prefix “meta” means “beyond”. The first philosopher to deal with the subject, systematically, was Aristotle.

In fact, he himself called this idea “first philosophy”, as he understood that it would be the foundation of philosophical reflection. Thus, the term metaphysics was not coined by him but by one of his disciples who organized his work.

In addition to “first philosophy”, Aristotle investigated the “science of being as being”. Therefore, he was interested in questioning what makes matter different and at the same time particular.

Aristotle

Unlike Plato, Aristotle thought that the principles of reality are not in the intelligible world but in our world, the sensitive one. Reality is subject to time and space.

Aristotle stated that four causes condition the existence of beings:

1. Material cause: the body is composed of matter. such as blood, skin, muscles, bones, etc.

2. Form: if on the one hand we have matter, we also have a form. One head, two arms, two legs, etc. Thus, this form transforms us into unique beings that differ from others.

3. Efficient: why do we exist? The first answer is because someone made us. This would be a response from the field of “efficient cause”: we exist because we were created.

4. Final: we exist for something. This answer transcends the previous one because we are facing a purpose, a goal. All beings were created for a purpose. The field of philosophy that studies it is called “teleology”.

Kant

It is common to hear that Kant (1724-1804) would have killed metaphysics. However, what Kant meant is that the human being is not capable of responding

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onder certain metaphysical questions such as the existence of God and the soul, for example.

Kant will seek to value reason. If I cannot find rational proof, I should not deal with these questions or at least they do not belong to the field of reason.

Thus, Kant will change the questions. Instead of asking what is true, he will ask himself how it is possible for truth to exist.

The history of metaphysics is divided into three periods:

1. First period: begins with Plato and Aristotle (between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC) and ends with David Hume (18th century). At this stage, metaphysics was understood as a reflection of being in its most general sense. One of the great scholars of this time will be Thomas Aquinas who will recover Aristotelian philosophy and apply it in his theological studies.

2. Second period: begins with Immanuel Kant, during the 18th century, and ends in the 20th century with Edmund Husserl and his studies on phenomenology. Kant will continue Hume's studies by pointing out the primacy of reason over the transcendental questions that metaphysics raised.

3. Third period: is the period that begins in the second decade of the 20th century until the present day. It corresponds to studies of contemporary metaphysics. The most denialist criticisms of metaphysics emerged with the recovery of materialism and the creation of positivism. On the other hand, at the end of the 20th century we saw the resurgence of metaphysics through esoteric currents.

Ontology

The area of ​​philosophy that deals with the nature of being, which is the reality and existence of things, and metaphysical questions in general is called ontology.

In the philosophical sense, it has several definitions and some authors consider it as the study of contemporary metaphysics.

The word results from the union of the Greek words ontos (being) and logos

(word).

ethic

Ethics is a set of moral systems that affect the way people make decisions. It can be defined as a moral philosophy.

The term Ethics originates from the Greek word ethos, which means habits, customs or character.

Ethics is addressed in different segments of society, such as religion, politics, philosophy and culture.

While metaphysics studies being as being, ethics deals with cause and effect. For Aristotle, ethics is based on metaphysics.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of the origin and acquisition of knowledge. Therefore, there is a specific area to check the validity of metaphysical knowledge.

Currently, modern epistemology is based on two fundamental points: empiricism and rationalism.

Positivism

Positivism is the main current in opposition to metaphysics. Positivist thinking maintains that the objective of science is logic. Emotions and thoughts are not considered.

Man is composed of soul and body, although in certain cases the term “spirit” is added. Both the soul and the spirit are placed in contrast with the body to express the incorporeal part of man. There is, however, a distinction between soul and spirit. The word “soul” is used to express the immortal moral part of the human being, and is sometimes used to mean “person”, as in the verse in Genesis 46:26 that says: “All the souls that came with Jacob to Egypt”. . “Eight souls were saved” (1 Peter 3:20). “The soul that sins shall die” (Eze 18:4).

The Hebrew word normally translated as “soul” is nephesh. In many passages it is translated “life”, as in Jonah 1:14: “…let us not perish because of this man's life”. In the New Testament the same Greek word is used for both soul and life: “For whoever wants to save his life (or soul) will lose it, and whoever loses his life (or soul) for my sake, you will find it. For what does it profit a man to gain the whole world, if he loses his soul (or life)? or what shall a man give in return for his soul (or life)?”

It is in the soul, distinct from the spirit, that there are appetites and desires. The rich man said: “And I will say to my soul, Soul, you have in store many goods for many years: rest, eat, drink and have fun” (Luke 12:19). That night his “soul” was required. The salvation of the soul cannot be separated from the salvation of the person.

The spirit is distinctly the highest part of man. It marks consciousness, individuality, and distinguishes man from the lower creatures in creation. God breathed into man's nostrils the breath of life, and thus man was placed in a relationship with God, and cannot be truly happy apart from Him, either in present existence or eternally. The same words used in the original Hebrew and Greek for “spirit” are also those that are constantly used for the Spirit of God or Holy Spirit, and are also used for angels, in the sense of spirits, and for evil spirits.

The Word of God is sharp, and capable of dividing a man's soul and spirit, although it cannot be easy for the human mind to perceive this division. The apostle prayed for the Thessalonians, that both the spirit (which is proof

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velly shown as the place in which God operates), as well as the soul and body, could be sanctified (1 Thess 5:23). In the Epistle to the Hebrews we read of the “spirits” of the righteous made perfect; your place is with God through redemption. The word there apparently means the person separated from his body.

The Christian having received the Holy Spirit as a source of life in Christ, he is exhorted to pray with the spirit, sing with the spirit, walk in the Spirit, so that in some cases it becomes difficult to distinguish between the Spirit of God and the spirit of the Christian.

What is Homogeneous:

Homogeneous is an adjective attributed to everything that has the same nature or similarity in structure or function, when compared to something else.

Normally the term is used in situations where it is not possible to clearly determine the composition or formation of a certain thing or space, for example.

Examples:

The farm’s terrain is much more homogeneous.

This article about the country's economy contains very homogeneous information.

This term can also be used to refer to something with the meaning of expressing coherence or demonstrating some correspondence relationship between two things.

Examples:

This is a characteristic of a homogeneous government. The reporter presented a very homogeneous text. Homogeneous in chemistry

For the area of ​​chemistry, the term homogeneous is related to the system

which is formed by a mixture of substances that contains only one phase (single phase) when two or more elements are mixed.

When we say that a mixture is homogeneous, we mean that its composition is uniform, that is, that the components mix easily, and it is not possible to perceive the substances separately.

Difference Between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

In chemistry, the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous lies precisely in the fact that pure substances mix. Thus, what defines whether a mixture is classified as heterogeneous or homogeneous is the way in which the substances used are mixed and whether the result will have one or more phases.

Mixtures can be formed by two or more pure substances and will be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

In this sense, a homogeneous mixture is one that visibly presents a single phase. A heterogeneous mixture has two or more phases, thus being two-phase or three-phase, for example.

Salt water is an example of a homogeneous single-phase mixture, that is, it has only one phase. This happens because when water and salt are mixed, it is not possible to perceive the difference or separation of the substances that form this mixture.

Water and oil are the best-known examples of a heterogeneous mixture, as these substances do not mix completely. In this case, it is a two-phase heterogeneous mixture, as it is possible to perceive each of the substances separately.

See also the meaning of Heterogeneous. Homogeneous in mathematics

In mathematics, the term homogeneous refers to an equation in which the terms that form the expression have the same value, same degree or have the same direction.

In the so-called homogeneous linear equation, the result of the equation formed by independent terms will always be equal to zero.

WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is the area of ​​natural sciences that studies the phenomena that occur with matter over space and time.

The word physics has its origin in the Greek term physiké, which means “nature”, its use/meaning is always related to the word episteme, which, of Greek origin, also means “knowledge”, “science”. Therefore, physics was defined as: The science that studies nature.

However, this was the definition given by the Greeks of Ancient Greece. For them, all natural phenomena were intriguing and there was no distinction between the fact that a body fell, a plant sprouted and wine fermented.

As time went by, the natural sciences were divided and thus Chemistry, Biology and Physics itself were born – which started to have its own field of study.

Physics seeks to describe, predict and justify, through laws, the phenomena that occur with matter throughout space and time.

The phenomena studied by physics are present everywhere, in our daily lives, on our planet, in other galaxies, in short, throughout the universe. When approaching these phenomena, Physics uses the scientific method, since hypotheses must be corroborated by experiments; This way predictions are made and it is possible to check whether the experiments agree with these predictions.

Physics is traditionally divided into branches. Each branch groups the study of facts that have similar properties and that can be related and described by common laws.

Therefore, here are the branches of Physics: Mechanics: studies the movements of bodies.

Thermology: studies phenomena related to temperature and heat.

Optics: studies phenomena related to light.

Wave: studies phenomena linked to waves

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their characteristics, properties and behaviors.

Electricity and Magnetism: studies electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Modern Physics: Deals with physics developed in the 20th century, which can include relativity, quantum physics and nuclear physics.

Meaning of Quantum Physics Share

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What is Quantum Physics:

Quantum physics is a theoretical branch of science that studies all phenomena that occur with atomic and subatomic particles, that is, that are equal to or smaller than atoms, such as electrons, protons, molecules and photons, for example.

All these microparticles cannot be studied from the perspective of classical physics, as they are not influenced by the laws that compose them, such as gravity, the law of inertia, action and reaction, etc.

Unlike classical physics, quantum physics is classified as “non-intuitive”, which means that, in this branch of study, certain things are true even when they appear not to be. In fact, because it is considered non-intuitive, quantum physics became known as a “false theory”.

Also known as quantum mechanics, this revolutionary theory of modern physics emerged during the first years of the 20th century, with physicist Max Planck (1858 – 1947) being one of the pioneers in developing its basic principles, which contradict many of the fundamental laws of physics. classical physics. Planck was responsible, for example, for creating the “Planck constant” (E = h.v).

However, it was Albert Einstein, the creator of the Theory of Relativity, who named Planck's equation quantum (a Latin word meaning “quantity”) for the first time. Quantum is a reference to the physical event of quantization, which consists of the instantaneous change of electrons that contain a minimum energy level to a higher one, if they are heated.

Even though the theory of quantum physics is focused on microscopic phenomena, these are reflected in all macroscopic aspects, since all things in the universe are made from molecules, atoms and other subatomic particles.

Throughout the 20th century, several scientists and physicists contributed to the development of quantum physical theory, such as: Werner Heisenberg (1901 – 1976), Louis de Broglie (1892 – 1987), Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962),

Erwin Schrödinger (1887 – 1961), Max Born (1882 – 1970), John von

Neumann (1903 – 1957), Richard Feynman (1918 – 1988), Wolfgang

Pauli (1900 – 1958), among others.

From then on, quantum physics became the basic theory of several other branches of physics and chemistry, such as atomic physics, nuclear physics, molecular physics, quantum chemistry, particle physics, etc. In fact, the principles of quantum physics are also applied in various sectors of human knowledge, revolutionizing not only the Exact Sciences, but also philosophical currents.

The main link between quantum physics and philosophical and spiritual concepts, according to defenders of this relationship, is the condition of causality and uncertainty of this theory, which says that it is possible for two different and simultaneous situations to exist for a given subatomic body.

This principle was observed in quantum physics from the so-called "wave-particle duality", that is, when a particle behaves sometimes like a particle and sometimes like a wave, a statement that is completely abnormal in relation to classical physics.

Based on this idea, for example, several theoretical study hypotheses emerge, such as the “theory of several worlds”, which says that it is possible for different alternative realities to exist for each individual.

Learn more about Physics.

Quantum physics and spirituality

This relationship is controversial, as it consists of the debate between two distinct groups, one formed by those who defend the veracity of quantum influence on the spiritual plane, and the other that completely denies the use of quantum mechanics as a way of explaining spirituality.

For those who defend the existence of a relationship between quantum physics and the spiritual, the force of human thought could exert great power over the individual reality of each person, being, with the correct indications, capable of altering the world to their liking. around.

Quantum physics and thinking

Several internationally renowned physicists relate the principles of quantum physics to theories about human consciousness and the power of thought as a “constructor” of reality.

In short, the human mind would have a profound capacity to influence the arrangement of atomic microparticles around people, the way they behave and how they construct each individual's reality. For scholars who believe in this idea, people's intentions influence the construction of reality.

THE FIVE KINGDOMS OF LIVING BEINGS

Discover the five kingdoms of living beings and learn more about their differences.

by Vanessa Sardinha dos Santos

Animals and plants are classified into the kingdoms Animalia and Plantae, respectively.

We know that, according

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o with their similarities, all living beings are grouped into different categories ranging from kingdom to species. A kingdom is the widest category and encompasses living beings that have similar characteristics, but some important peculiarities.

We currently consider the existence of five kingdoms: Monera, Protista or Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. This classification was proposed by researcher Whittaker in 1969 and to this day it is one of the most accepted and studied in elementary and secondary education.

The Monera kingdom is a group of very simple beings. All members are made up of just one cell (unicellular) and this cell does not have a defined nucleus (prokaryotic cell). Some representatives are capable of producing their own food (autotrophs), while others need to obtain their nutrients from other living organisms (heterotrophs). This group includes all species of bacteria and cyanobacteria.

The Protista or Protoctista kingdom, unlike the Monera kingdom, does not have individuals with prokaryotic cells, all representatives being eukaryotic. In this group we find unicellular beings and

multicellular and also organisms with autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. This kingdom has very diverse organisms, and many people even say that it contains beings that simply do not fit into other kingdoms. As representatives, we can mention protozoa and algae.

The paramecium is an example of a representative of the Protoctista kingdom

The Fungi kingdom presents unicellular or multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cells. All representatives, unlike the kingdoms above, are heterotrophic, that is, unable to produce their food. This is the main characteristic that distinguishes this group of plants. This kingdom includes all mushrooms, molds and yeasts.

The Plantae kingdom is composed exclusively of autotrophic organisms that have eukaryotic and multicellular cells. It is a very diverse group and encompasses all the plants on the planet. Despite the appearance of plants like algae, this last group cannot be grouped into this kingdom. However, evidence proves that plants have green algae as ancestors.

Finally, we have the kingdom Animalia, the kingdom to which we belong. It has heterotrophic, multicellular representatives and eukaryotic cells. This first characteristic (heterotrophic beings) is fundamental to differentiate this group of plants.

We still have viruses, but they are not classified into any of the kingdoms studied. Many scholars do not consider these beings to be alive, since they have no cells and no metabolism outside of the cells they parasitize. However, this is still a controversial point. Faced with this problem, viruses are studied separately.

BIOLOGY

KINGDOMS OF THE LIVING WORLD

The most accepted kingdoms of the living world today are Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Bacteria are part

of the Monera kingdom ADVERTISING

Since Antiquity, several ways of classifying living beings have been proposed in order to facilitate the study of these organisms and understand their evolutionary relationships. The criteria used to group them are varied, which means that these systems are constantly modified and improved.

The first classification systems were quite simple and, as technological resources were scarce, they were based on the macroscopic characteristics of each being and their lifestyle habits. For this reason, organisms were initially classified by Linnaeus into two kingdoms:

Animal and Vegetable.

With the advancement of technology, the study of microscopic beings began and, with this, a new classification emerged. In 1866, the term protist was proposed to designate eukaryotic organisms that did not fit into the Animal and Plant kingdoms. Years later, protists were promoted to kingdom.

Copeland, in 1956, suggested the creation of a kingdom to group organisms that could be considered the simplest in nature: bacteria. The system of four kingdoms emerged, as well as the Monera Kingdom, where prokaryotic beings were inserted.

Fungi are part of the kingdom Fungi

Later, in 1969, the five kingdom system proposed by Whittaker emerged. Without a doubt, this is the most used system, although there are other classifications. According to Whittaker's system, we have the kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae.

→ Kingdom Monera: Groups unicellular prokaryotic organisms, that is, they have only one cell without a nucleus delimited by a membrane. Examples: Bacteria and cyanobacteria.

→ Kingdom Protista (Currently called Protoctista): Brings together unicellular and multicellular beings, eukaryotes, autotrophs or heterotrophs. Example: algae and protozoa.

The change of name from Kingdom Protista to Protoctista occurred

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in the 1980s and was proposed by Margulis and Schwartz. In addition to changing the names, the researchers included multicellular algae and some fungi in this group.

→ Kingdom Fungi: Groups eukaryotic beings, most of which are multicellular, and heterotrophic. Examples: Mushrooms, molds and yeasts.

Plants are part of the kingdom Plantae

→ Kingdom Plantae or Metaphyta: Encompasses eukaryotic, multicellular organisms with autotrophic nutrition. Example: Mosses, ferns, araucaria and mango trees.

→ Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa: Includes eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that have heterotrophic nutrition. Example: Man, dog, cow and birds.

Animals are part of the kingdom Animalia

In addition to this classification, it is currently accepted that all organisms are included in three large domains: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. This classification was proposed by Carl Woese, in 1990, and created using ribosomal RNA nucleotide analysis data.

The Bacteria domain groups all true bacteria or simply bacteria. The domain Archaeae includes all archaea, which were previously mistakenly considered to be the basal group of bacteria. The Eukarya domain, in turn, is made up of all existing eukaryotic organisms, including in this group, therefore, the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

As textbooks and most teachers still adopt the classification proposed by Whittaker, here you will find texts that follow this system.

Happy studying!

Attention: Viruses are a very peculiar group due to the absence of cells. Therefore, they are not classified within the kingdoms of living beings. It is worth noting that these organisms are unable to live without a cell, and are considered obligate intracellular parasites.

THE 7 MAIN CHAKRAS OF LIVING BEINGS

To start talking about the chakras, we need to talk about energy. Energy is everything that vibrates: light, sound, the Sun's rays, water... Everything that exists in the Universe is made up of energy. Everything we see is composed of condensed energy, that is, matter.

Our physical body is matter, that is, energy. Our planet is made up of condensed energy, just like nature and all the things that man has created. There is energy everywhere, on and off planet Earth.

All living beings need vital energy (or prana, bioenergy, chi…) to stay alive. It can be obtained from sunlight, food, plants, land, water, air.

Everything is made of energy – The aura or psychosoma

As we are energy, each living being has a magnetic field that protects it and differentiates it from other beings. This field is better known as aura, and has different names according to the spiritual school that studies it.

In the aura, according to Professor Wagner Borges, from IPPB, there are several openings through which we exchange energy with the environment, with other people, with other beings, with nature.

KEYS TO ACTIVATE THE HIDDEN POWER OF HERBS

Awaken the Power of Herbs for Soul Transformation and Balance

Chakras

These openings in the aura are energetic vortices, and are more popularly known as chakras, or chakras. Chakras are circle-shaped energy centers (chakra = wheel, in Sanskrit) in our body that vibrate constantly. There are billions spread throughout the aura of living beings. How does this happen?

It's simple, all living beings are made up of cells. We humans are made up of billions of them, and each one needs to be alive and in constant activity for us to be alive.

Therefore, for this to happen, cells are nourished with vital energy, and they need to constantly receive and release energy. Thanks to this exchange, we are born, grow and develop, until one day the energetic exchanges cease and the physical body dies along with its cells.

This all happens thanks to the chakras, the main ones responsible for this energy exchange. For every living cell there is a chakra in constant movement.

There are chakras that play important roles in the body. Some are more important than others. There are main and secondary ones. The latter are considered this way because they are not associated with the endocrine glands. Two examples of these are the splenic chakra (connected to the spleen) and the liver chakra. In this article, we will look at the main chakras in general.

The Main Chakras

The seven main chakras of the body are, from bottom to top: Basic, Sexual, Solar Plexus, Heart, Throat, Frontal and Crown. All of them are associated with the endocrine system of the human body, and each of them is associated with a specific gland.

We will base ourselves here on the study of Hindus, who have been focusing on subtle anatomy for at least 10 thousand years, through Ayurvedic medicine and the sacred scriptures of Hinduism. They are the pioneers in the study of the chakras, and represent each one with lotus flowers with quantities

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of different petals. The more subtle the chakras are, the more petals they have (with the exception of the brow chakra).

From a spiritual point of view, each chakra brings with it a mission to be fulfilled by man. The vibration of each chakra also indicates whether or not the person is well in each part of the body and in each sector of their life. A chakra that vibrates excessively is hyperactive, or that vibrates less than normal, hypoactive, is out of balance.

BASE CHAKRA or 1ST CHAKRA:

He is called Muladhara by the Hindus, and in Sanskrit it means support. It is at the base of the spine (on the last bone, coccyx), more precisely in the perineum region. Its opening faces downwards, towards the earth. And the

responsible for the absorption of telluric energy and the direct stimulation of energy in the body and blood circulation.

It is linked to the adrenal glands, responsible for releasing the hormone adrenaline into the blood, which drives us to preserve our lives in situations of danger or decision-making.

The basic chakra is red in color, and, as we have already seen, it is linked to the earth element, and also governs the organs that give structure to the body (bones, muscles, spine, hips), legs and feet. In this way, this chakra offers us support, a structure for us to live on the earthly plane, as it is what connects us to the earth, to existence.

It is common for people with depression or who have attempted suicide to have this chakra weakened. People who are very attached to material things, who accumulate old things, often have problems with constipation and this reflects a malfunction of the basic chakra.

Prosperous and healthy people tend to have an equally healthy base chakra. The mission of this chakra is to make us walk with balance on planet Earth and it expresses the health of the physical body as a whole.

SEXUAL CHAKRA or 2ND CHAKRA:

For Hindus, it is Swadhisthana (or city of pleasure, in Sanskrit) and is located in the lower belly region. It is physically connected to the gonads – testicles (man) and ovaries (woman) – and to feminine energy, to the mother's womb, to procreation (to the creation of other things as well, such as projects

personal, professional), pregnancy. It is responsible for reproduction and sexual exchange during sex, and for controlling fluid throughout the human body.

The sexual chakra energizes the entire genital and urinary area, it also takes care of filtering and circulating liquids in the kidneys and expelling all excretions from the body. It is governed by the Moon (which is why it is so linked to the feminine, sexuality, motherhood and creation) and the water element (linked to amniotic fluid, interpersonal relationships, self-esteem, self-love).

During pregnancy, inside our mother's womb, we were connected to her by the umbilical cord for 9 months. In the womb we were sheltered and surrounded by amniotic fluid, we were nourished by it; For all these reasons, the health of this chakra measures and influences the quality of our relationship with the Earth, with our family, with people in general, and with ourselves. It represents our emotional body, stores emotions experienced in relationships, and gives us the mission to interact with the world, with what is around us in a harmonious way.

It can also be called the sacral chakra, and is colored orange, purple or red (depending on the circumstances). It is the chakra of sexual exchange and joy. Many spiritual schools avoid talking about this chakra and put the splenic chakra (or spleen chakra) in its place.

When it is blocked, it causes sexual impotence or discouragement, relationship problems, low self-esteem. When hyperactive, it causes intense sexual desire and other compulsions. If the sexual chakra is healthy, it stimulates the better functioning of the other chakras and helps with the awakening of kundalini; the person has balanced self-esteem, is able to enjoy and appreciate the pleasures of life.

UMBILICAL OR 3rd CHAKRA:

Called Manipura by the Hindus (in Sanskrit, city of jewels), it is one or two fingers above the navel, and is connected to the pancreas. This chakra is yellow, strong green and red in color.

It influences our relationship with matter and personal power. Dense emotions such as anger, hurt, fear, sadness, anguish, resentment, anxiety are retained in this chakra. It is one of the chakras that most need to be treated and harmonized at all times. Represents the mental body.

The solar plexus controls the viscera region, and it is no surprise that all dense and visceral emotions (such as passion and desire) accumulate in this region. It is responsible for absorbing energy from food and distributing it throughout the body. It is one of the chakras most susceptible to our routine. Most people suffer from some physical problem in this region, such as gastritis, stomach problems, diabetes, or other digestive problems.

When it is blocked, the umbilical chakra causes nausea, fear or irritation. When in harmony, it gives us a very great power of achievement, it is the chakra that impels us to act. This chac

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Ra has great vitality when healthy, and works as a psychic radar, perceiving spiritual energies or presences in the environment.

HEART CHAKRA OR 4TH CHAKRA:

The Hindus named it Anahata (Secret Chamber of the Heart), and, by translating it from Sanskrit, it is easy to know where it is? in the heart region, in the center of the chest. The heart chakra is green and golden yellow in color, and is connected to the thymus gland.

It is responsible for energizing the cardiorespiratory system, and all the energy in the chest. Considered the center of love and channel for expressing feelings, it is also linked to balance, universal love, compassion, altruism and, physically, the immune system.

The heart chakra has the function of balancing the energies of all the other chakras, as it is in the center, with below it three lower chakras associated with existence on Earth, and above it, three upper chakras, more subtle and associated with the spiritual plane. It is the heart that connects Heaven with Earth, it is the connection of spirituality through matter. Represents the astral body.

It is the most fragile chakra if there is an emotional imbalance. If it is well developed, it becomes a channel of love for spiritual assistance work. When there is a blockage, the person feels depression, anguish, irritation, pain in the chest, is excessively materialistic and attached. Physically, the blockage can cause heart attack and tachycardia. In women, breast cancer can develop.

LARYNGEAL CHAKRA OR 5TH CHAKRA:

Baptized as Vishuddha (The Purifier of Blood, in Sanskrit). This name already gives us some clues about the gland to which it is linked: the thyroid (and parathyroids). The thyroid's function is to filter the blood and regulate menstrual cycles in women.

It is located in the throat and is responsible for communication, expressing ideas, verbalizing and implementing projects. Physically, it takes care of the mouth, throat and respiratory tract. The hands and arms are physical extensions of the throat chakra, as it is with them that we bring ideas to the material plane, getting our hands dirty.

The Laryngeal represents the standard etheric body and is sky blue, lilac, silvery white or pink. When in good health and development, it facilitates psychophony and clairaudience. It is also considered as an energetic filter that prevents emotional energies from reaching the head chakras.

When it presents an imbalance, it can cause sore throat, herpes, toothache and/or gum pain, hyper or hypothyroidism. A person with adaptation problems, or who tolerates everything in silence, “swallows frogs”, may have a blocked throat chakra.

FRONT CHAKRA OR 6TH CHAKRA:

The Ajna (Control Center, in Sanskrit) is better known as the third eye. This means that it is on the forehead, between the eyebrows, and linked to the pituitary gland or pituitary gland. It has an indigo, bluish-white, yellow or greenish color.

It controls all the other chakras, it is from it that all commands for the entire body come from; It also takes care of the frontal lobe, which represents our logical portion, our ideals, reasoning and thoughts, our capacity for learning, observation and intuition. The brow chakra also represents the celestial body and is responsible for the health of the eyes and nose.

When it is healthy, ajna acquires clairvoyant capacity and expands intuition. It is easy to work with, as we use it a lot on a daily basis due to our vision. Generally, its activity can be felt by a vibration or sensation of heat in the forehead. This chakra also represents duality and the two hemispheres of our brain, as it is designed with just two petals.

There are several dysfunctions in this chakra, such as an excess of thoughts, ideas that accumulate and are not put into practice, disorganization, lack of focus. Physically, the person may suffer from sinusitis, which is the somatization of this mental congestion. A feeling of panic, headaches, and even mental problems may also appear. Meditation is a great way to clear your head and clear your brow chakra.

CROWN CHAKRA OR 7TH CHAKRA:

The Sahashara (Lotus of a thousand petals, in Sanskrit) has exactly 972 petals. It is at the top of the head, connected to the pineal or epiphysis, which is the gland that is in the center of the head and is located on top of all the other glands in the body. The chakra forms a crown of light, which is why it is also known as the crown chakra, as it faces upwards. It has a violet, white-fluorescent or golden color.

Through this chakra, we can achieve understanding of everything and it is through it that we connect with the spiritual plane, with the Higher Self, with God and the divine in all things; It is linked to our way of professing our faith and evolving spiritually.

When it is worked on and developed, it facilitates remembering and awareness of consciousness projections. It is very important in telepathy, in the development of mediumship, in the expansions of consciousness and in the reception

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of elevated themes. It is the chakra through which cosmic energy and the energy of the Sun penetrates.

The crown is the most important chakra, as it is responsible for energizing the brain, has an influence on mental functions and the production of serotonin,

the well-being hormone, as it regulates sleep, appetite, mood, among other functions.

This chakra represents the causal body. Its vibration also indicates that we are alive. For this reason, people who say they do not believe in God, or do not profess any faith, or do not have any religious practice also show activity in the crown chakra.

When out of balance, a person can develop phobias, neurological problems, lack of faith, depression, and suicidal tendencies. When you are healthy, we activate all our sensitivity and live aligned with our purpose, with health, happiness and great energy.

The crown chakra is the most important of all the chakras, and its mission is to understand all of existence and become enlightened, integrating with the whole. It is our last duty on planet Earth.

Chakras and Phytoenergetics

As we saw before, each person has their own energy field that surrounds the physical body, called aura. Each chakra takes care of a sector of our life and the challenges we have to overcome.

By knowing better how our energy behaves, it is possible to begin to uncover the causes of illnesses and understand the level of toxicity of behavior and recurring thoughts in our daily lives. We can begin to understand how feelings, thoughts and emotions affect our emotional, mental and physical health.

From the moment we discover the imbalances in our body, in the chakras, we can count on the energy of plants. Remember that all living beings have vital energy? Therefore, plants and vegetables can help us, with their energy, to heal from physical, mental, spiritual and emotional illnesses.

HOW TO HAVE THE POWER OF MIND IN YOUR FAVOR

by José Roberto Marques

Use the power of your mind to your advantage

The human mind is one of the most incredible places there is. This “little box” hides an infinite potential, in which we can search for ideas, concepts and plans so that they become reality. To learn more about this subject, just continue reading this article!

A light mind is much more powerful and aggregating! Since we talk about the strength of the mind, I present to you my negative thoughts detoxification program! Change your life now!

Turning dreams into reality

The first step for something to become real is mental creation. There is nothing that we can put into practice or materialize physically without it having first crossed our minds. Reality is directly linked to the images projected within us. When we don't have control of our thoughts or don't understand how to work with our mind, we go through complicated situations or are led into a world that is not ideal.

You may have heard an old, quite common saying: “wanting is power”. It seems simple, doesn't it? But if we look at it in the context of coaching, our achievements begin from the moment the mind works towards what we believe and want to achieve. When we think correctly, we have the power to achieve what we so desire.

Tips on how to work your mind correctly

There is no point in demanding tons of innovative ideas from a restless mind. So, check out some tips on how to take care of yourself:

· According to neuroscientist Cori Bargmann, from Rockefeller University, in the United States, to keep the brain active and healthy, sleep is essential. During sleep, memories are fixed and some toxic proteins are eliminated, which does not happen when we are awake.

· Physical exercise is also essential for the proper functioning of the mind.

· Gratitude for learning and achievements is important. This positive attitude strengthens self-confidence and makes the individual see life in a more uplifting and less pessimistic way.

· Positive thinking eliminates stress and anxieties. Supported by it, the central point is never the problem itself, but how to find the best solutions to solve it and move forward.

· According to American psychologist Daniel Goleman, another important element in accessing the power of the mind is focus. For the specialist, it is necessary to maintain an internal, external and empathetic focus to find balance. To achieve this, Goleman argues that it is necessary to learn to completely disconnect from the environment, as well as see the world from new perspectives and, finally, choose the best ways to relate to people.

If you have any other recommendations you want to share, just write them in the comments!

6 tips to enhance the power of the mind

As mentioned above, it doesn't take a great technique or an innovative secret for the power of the mind to start playing on our side. These are small attitudes, a change in behavior and changes in lifestyle

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which can make a big difference. Follow the advice below and maximize the power of your mind:

1. Be positive: always try to have a positive outlook. Positive attitudes and thoughts increase self-esteem and help maintain physical and mental health. There is no point in wanting to change the power of the mind in your favor if the thoughts are bad, negative.

2. Exercise: exercise is essential for good health. The heart and the rest of our body will thank you if you exercise frequently. The Roman philosopher Juvenal (died in the 2nd century) said that “a healthy mind in a healthy body”. During physical activities, important areas of the mind are worked, responsible for stimulating memory and the creation of regenerating cells.

3. Give thanks: by being grateful, you are feeding positive feelings that promote a feeling of well-being, happiness and reward. Furthermore, being grateful strengthens your purpose and mission in life. Be grateful for your achievements, family and friends. And try to exercise this feeling of gratitude whenever possible in the small gestures of the people around you.

4. Sleep well: as mentioned previously, research proves that sleep is essential for the proper functioning of the brain. Therefore, try to sleep preferably at least 8 hours a night and do your best to relax and rest your body and mind. Just like the physical part, there comes a time when the mind also needs to recharge its batteries.

5. Stay focused: By controlling your ability to concentrate, your power over your mind gradually increases. Knowing the right time to pay attention to a certain subject or simply relax and have a little distraction helps the brain to establish a balance and not become overloaded. Make a list of what is really important and try to follow it so that you don't lose focus and work on this fundamental side of the mind.

6. Replace words: You know that words have power, right? So work with them to exercise your mind little by little. A valuable tip in this regard is to replace “if” with “when”. Whenever you discuss a future matter or a plan in your life, no longer say “if I get the job”, but rather “when I get the job”. The “if” gives you options and the “when” focuses on an option.

Did you see how different everything can be with simple attitudes in everyday life? Exercise your mind, have positive thoughts and actions, achieve greater mental power and extraordinary results in your life.

Neurolinguistic programming

Have you ever heard about neurolinguistic programming? This science was developed by author Richard Bandler and psychologist John Grinder in the 1970s in the United States. Their research showed that humans have 3 pillars: neurological processes, language and behavior. More than that, scholars claim that a person can connect these dots to achieve a goal.

At the Brazilian Coaching Institute (IBC) there is a training that works precisely on this concept called Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP). In addition to delving deeper into the concepts of neurolinguistic programming, the course helps you find your inner self and develop a better version of yourself, without losing your essence. It does not stop there! The training also teaches:

· What is the best way to transform dreams into real goals? A topic very related to what this article talks about.

· What is and how to exercise self-knowledge, self-development, self-esteem and emotional intelligence.

· How to practice non-verbal language.

· What is the alignment of neurological levels.

· What the structure of thought is and how it works.

· How to develop behavioral flexibility.

· What are the representational channels;

· Increase the ability to reflect on a given situation looking from more than one angle

· How to negotiate and solve problems effectively.

· How to manage time and activities productively.

· Best practices for good leadership.

· Development of critical capacity.

· How to generate team commitment.

· How to expand your ability to communicate with different types of audiences.

· Give new meaning to various situations and facts in your life.

· Maturation of creativity and application of it in processes and problem solutions.

Did you like the training? So, don't wait another minute and browse the website to find out more about it or get in touch with one of our representatives.

A light mind is much more powerful and aggregating! Since we talk about the strength of the mind, I present to you my negative thoughts detoxification program! Change your life now!

Access here! It is free!

If you liked these tips, comment and share the content with your friends. Also leave below other ideas to make the mind become our ally in the search for success and goals.

WHAT IS YOGA?

If you think yoga is just twisting and moving your body in weird ways, you're in the right place.

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Now to rethink. Yoga is much more than postures. Derived from the Sanskrit word "yuj", which means "to unite or integrate", yoga is a body of knowledge that is more than 5 thousand years old. Yoga is about harmonizing the body with the mind and breathing, through breathing techniques (pranayamas), yoga postures (asanas) and meditation. Watch the video below to learn more about what yoga is:

Yoga for Everyone

Yoga is a way of living and if we stop to think about it, we have been practicing it since we were babies! For example, doing the cat stretch, to lengthen the spine. You always see kids doing some type of yoga during the day.

Yoga works for everyone: people who work in an office, people who practice sports, people looking to lose weight, those with an intense or relaxed routine in their daily lives who can have a better quality of life with the practice.

Breathing Techniques (Pranayama) and Meditation

Pranayama is the art of effectively controlling breathing. Practicing proper breathing techniques can help bring more oxygen to the blood and brain, thus helping to control prana, or vital energy.

Pranayama also follows along with various yoga asanas.

The union between these two principles of yoga is considered the highest form of purification and self-discipline, covering both the mind and body. Prayanamas techniques also prepare us for a deeper meditation experience.

Sri Sri Yoga

At Arte de Viver, we have a yoga workshop that takes place over 5 days (2 hours per day), uniting the body, mind and breath with a joyful experience. A combination of asanas performed gently and vigorously is taught, combined with other techniques that guarantee the well-being of the body and nourish the mind and spirit.

With the multidimensional routine of Sri Sri Yoga, combining yoga postures, breathing techniques, yogic knowledge and meditation, students end up with a complete practice to carry out at home. It is aimed at beginners and at the same time for more advanced practitioners. Through the practices taught in the workshop, participants can lose weight and heal from chronic illnesses such as insomnia, asthma, diabetes, hypertension and migraines.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali – The classic gift of yoga

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's exclusive commentary on this ancient text, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, will illuminate your knowledge of yoga, its origin and purpose. Delve deeper into this rich knowledge and learn more about the practice of yoga, described by Patanjali.

FRUITS AND THEIR VITAMINS

Fruits are foods that need to be included every day in our menu. They are rich in vitamins and provide energy for activities. Each type of fruit is a true health balm, with physical and aesthetic benefits. Some of them have important medicinal powers.

People in general are unable to eat the ideal number of servings of fruit every day, as the temptation to eat a sweet or chocolate instead of an apple, for example, is strong. However, it is important that we make efforts to prioritize fruit whenever possible.

Check the vitamin profile of each fruit:

Banana: Vitamins A, B1, B2 and C Watermelon: Vitamins B, A and C complex Orange: Vitamin C

Lemon: Vitamins C and B complex Apple: Vitamins B1 and B2 Pineapple: Vitamins C, B1 and A

Passion fruit: Vitamins A, C and B complex Melon: Rich in vitamins A, C and B complex Strawberry: Rich in vitamin C

Pear: Vitamins A, C and B complex Papaya: Vitamins A, C and B complex Avocado: Vitamin E.

Grape: Vitamins complex B and C

Fruits with antioxidant powers: strawberries, plums, grapes, oranges, apples, bananas, pears and papayas.

Fruits to include in the weight loss diet: pineapple (low in calories and diuretic); banana (rich in tryptophan, which helps fight anxiety); fig (source of magnesium and diuretic); lemon (fights free radicals and is also a diuretic); mango (high concentrations of potassium and magnesium) and watermelon (diuretic) and peach (very nutritious).

Citrus fruits (with citric acid): Rich in vitamins and antioxidants, fight free radicals: Orange, lemon, acerola, cashew, pineapple, medlar. Non-acidic and not recommended for those suffering from heartburn.

Fruits recommended to combat heartburn: apple, melon, watermelon and banana

VITAMIN TABLE

What they are, functions of vitamins, types of vitamins, fruit vitamins, avitaminosis, water-soluble fat-soluble vitamins, importance, vitamin C and others.

What are vitamins

Vitamins are important nutrients for our body. They are extremely important for the proper functioning of our body, mainly because they help to avoid many diseases.

They are not produced by the body and, therefore, must be acquired through food intake (fruits, vegetables, meats, etc.). A lack of vitamins can lead to several diseases (avitaminosis).

Vitamins can be of two types: water-soluble (soluble in water and absorbed by the

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testino) and fat-soluble (soluble in fats and absorbed by the intestine with the help of bile salts produced by the liver).

Vitamin A

Sources: poultry liver, animals and carrots

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): vision problems, dry skin, reduction in red blood cells, formation of kidney stones

Functions in the body: combats free radicals, formation of bones, skin; retinal functions

Vitamin D

Sources: fish oil, liver, egg yolks

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): rickets and osteoporosis

Functions in the body: regulation of calcium in the blood and bones

Vitamin E

Sources: greens, olive oil and vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): visual difficulties and neurological changes

Functions in the body: acts as an antioxidant agent.

Vitamin K

Sources: liver and green leafy vegetables, avocado.

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): deficiency in blood clotting, bleeding.

Functions in the body: acts on blood clotting, prevents osteoporosis, activates osteocalcin (an important bone protein).

Vitamin B1

Sources: cereals, meats, vegetables, brewer's yeast

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): beriberi

Functions in the body: acts on the energy metabolism of sugars

Vitamin B2

Sources: milk, meat, vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): inflammation of the tongue, anemia, seborrhea

Functions in the body: acts on the metabolism of enzymes, protection on the nervous system.

Vitamin B5

Sources: liver, mushrooms, corn, avocado, eggs, milk, vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): fatigue, muscle cramps, insomnia

Functions in the body: metabolism of proteins, fats and sugars

Vitamin B6

Sources: meat, fruits, vegetables and cereals

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): seborrhea, anemia, growth disorders

Functions in the body: growth, cellular protection, fat and protein metabolism, hormone production

B12 vitamin

Sources: liver, meat

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): pernicious anemia Functions in the body: formation of red blood cells and cell multiplication

Vitamin C

Sources: orange, lemon, pineapple, kiwi, acerola, strawberry, broccoli, melon, mango

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): scurvy

Functions in the body: acts to strengthen the immune system, fights free radicals and increases the absorption of iron in the intestine.

Vitamin H

Sources: walnut, almond, chestnut, brewer's yeast, milk, egg yolk, brown rice

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): eczema, exhaustion, muscle pain, dermatitis

Functions in the body: fat metabolism

Vitamin M or B9

Sources: mushrooms, green vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): megaloblastic anemia, neural tube diseases

Functions in the body: metabolism of amino acids, formation of red blood cells and nervous tissues

Vitamin PP or B3

Sources: peas, peanuts, fava beans, fish, beans, liver

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): insomnia, headache, dermatitis, diarrhea, depression

Functions in the body: skin maintenance, liver protection, regulates blood cholesterol levels.

COCONUT WATER: BENEFITS FOR YOUR HEALTH

Not long ago, nutritionists, nutritionists and all types of professionals involved in the food sector - including me - recommended moderation in the consumption of coconut water, one of the most popular drinks at this time of year when it is hotter. We were concerned because it contains fructose and saturated fats, substances that can make us fat and cause some problems for our health, and because we thought that its benefits did not outweigh its harms.

Coconut water is rich in vitamins, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrates, antioxidants, enzymes and other phytonutrients that help the body function more efficiently.

Coconut water has a combination of substances that make it special even when compared to drinks. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrates, antioxidants, enzymes and other phytonutrients that help the body function more efficiently. Its electrolyte content (ionic mineral) similar to human plasma has guaranteed it international recognition as the best oral rehydrator. In other words: a super sport drink incomparable to any other product created by man for this purpose. It is so compatible with the human body that it can even be injected into a vein, which was quite common during the 1st and 2nd World Wars, as well as the Vietnam War, where a lack of resources made the military learn about the unique qualities of the coconut water almost accidentally. Even though the hydrating characteristic of this drink is the most famous, the benefits it brings to health don't stop there. Coconut water promotes the balance of body chemistry, benefiting overall health. It reduces blood pressure and risk of heart disease, prevents atheroscle

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rose, facilitates kidney functions, protects against various types of cancer, facilitates digestion, control of blood glucose levels, blood circulation, makes the immune system more active, has anti-aging properties and helps preserve friendly bacteria of health. For athletes, coconut water cannot be missed in the summer. It acts as an electrolyte replenisher, a substance that protects against cramps and improves physical performance, being more efficient in replacing some nutrients lost in perspiration than water itself. Drink coconut water: it's all good!

Super health!

Find out more: Flavored water makes 2 liters seem like little

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. The study of this area is multifaceted and includes subfields such as areas of human development, sports, health, clinical and social behavior and cognitive processes.

The word “psychology” comes from the ancient Greek psyche, which means “mind”, and logos, which means “knowledge or study”. As it is a science, it tries to investigate the causes of behavior. Consequently, it uses systematic and objective observation, measurement and analysis procedures, supported by theoretical interpretations, generalizations, explanations and predictions.

It seems impossible to study the most complex machine on earth, which is the human mind. Although we cannot directly observe the mind, everything we do, think, feel and say is determined by how it works.

Psychologists take human behavior as raw data to test their theories about how the mind works. For patients, this means understanding which mental processes are triggering negative reactions in their lives. Therefore, it is possible to work on them in order to change these behaviors for a healthier mind. According to the Federal Council of Psychology, today there are just over 310,000 psychologists in Brazil, 90% of whom are women.

What is psychology?

In the early days, there were two dominant theoretical perspectives on its study. An American psychologist named William James (1842-1910) developed an approach that came to be known as functionalism. In it, he argued that the mind is constantly changing and it is futile to look for the building blocks of experience. Instead, the focus should be on how and why an organism does something. Finally, it has been suggested that psychologists should look for the underlying cause of behavior and mental processes.

involved. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior has been a major influence on contemporary psychology.

The second perspective was Wilhelm Wundt's structuralism. The term originated with Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who had been trained by Wundt. Structuralism was based on trained introspection. As a result of this research method, subjects reported what was going on in their minds while performing a certain task. This proved to be an unreliable method because there was a lot of individual variation in the experiences and reports of research subjects. Despite the failure of introspection, Wundt is an important figure in the story. It was he who opened the first laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879. This opening is generally seen as the beginning of modern psychology.

Wundt was also important for separating this area from philosophy, analyzing the functioning of the mind using more objective and standardized procedures. With its broad scope, psychology investigates a huge variety of phenomena: learning and memory, sensation and perception, motivation and emotion, thought and language, personality and social behavior, intelligence, child development, mental illness, and much more.

Where did psychology come from?

Psychology is a very new science, with most advances happening in the last 150 years. However, its origins date back to ancient Greece, between 400 and 500 years BC. The emphasis was philosophical, with great thinkers such as Socrates influencing Plato, who in turn influenced Aristotle.

During the 17th century, French philosopher René Descartes introduced the idea of ​​dualism. This stated that the mind and body were two entities that interacted to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions of nature versus nurture, are rooted in these ancient philosophical traditions.

In the mid-19th century, the philosopher Wundt was using scientific research methods to investigate reaction times. His book was published in 1874, Principles of Physiological Psychology. He described many of the major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior.

In addition, physiology contributed to the eventual emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline. Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact

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amatic in the area. Therefore, they contributed to the application of scientific methodologies in the study of thought and behavior.

The arms of psychology

Any attempt to explain why human beings think and behave the way they do will be linked to a branch of psychology. The different disciplines are extremely broad. They include:

· Clinical psychology

· Cognitive psychology

· Developmental psychology

· Evolutionary psychology

· Forensic psychology

· Health psychology

· Neuropsychology

· Occupational psychology

· Social Psychology

Clinical psychology

This clinical area integrates science, theory and practice to understand, predict and alleviate problems with adaptation, disability and discomfort. Promotes adaptation, adjustment and personal development. A clinical psychologist focuses on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life, across cultures and socioeconomic levels.

Clinical psychology can help us understand, prevent and alleviate psychologically caused suffering or dysfunction and promote an individual's well-being and personal development. Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are central to the practice of clinical psychology. However, clinical psychologists are often also involved in research, training, forensic testimony, and other areas.

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language. It analyzes how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and

learn. It is closely related to neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. Cognitive psychologists analyze how people acquire, process, and store information. Practical applications include how to improve memory, increase decision-making accuracy, or how to set up educational programs to increase learning.

Developmental psychology

This is the scientific study of the systematic psychological changes a person experiences over a lifetime, often referred to as human development. This focuses not just on babies and young children, but on teenagers, adults and the elderly. Factors include motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, language acquisition, emotions, personality, self-concept, and identity formation. Developmental psychology overlaps with fields like linguistics.

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology looks at how human behavior, such as language, has been affected by psychological adjustments during evolution. An evolutionary psychologist believes that many human psychological traits are adaptive in that they have allowed us to survive over thousands of years.

Forensic psychology

Forensic study involves the application of psychology to criminal investigation and the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science within the criminal justice system and civil courts. It involves evaluating the psychological factors that may influence a case or behavior and presenting the findings in court.

Health psychology

Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. It looks at how behavior, biology, and social context influence disease and health.

A doctor often looks first for the biological causes of a disease. A health psychologist will focus on the whole person and what influences their health status. This may include your socioeconomic status, education and history, and behaviors that may have an impact on the disease, such as following instructions and medication. Health psychologists often work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings.

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology looks at the structure and function of the brain in relation to psychological behaviors and processes. A neuropsychologist may be involved if the condition involves injuries to the brain and assessments that involve recording electrical activity in the brain.

A neuropsychological assessment is used to determine whether a person is likely to experience behavioral problems after a suspected or diagnosed brain injury, such as a stroke. The results may allow a doctor to provide treatment that helps the individual achieve possible improvements in the cognitive damage that has occurred.

Occupational psychology

In a corporate setting, a psychologist can help increase productivity and increase employee retention. Occupational or organizational psychologists are involved in evaluating and making recommendations about people's performance at work and in training. They help companies find more effective ways of functioning and understand how people and groups behave at work. This information can help improve effectiveness, efficiency, job satisfaction, and employee retention.

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unctionaries.

social Psychology

Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand how social influences impact human behavior. It seeks to explain how feelings, behaviors and thoughts are influenced by the real, imagined or implied presence of other people.

A social psychologist examines group behavior, social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are seen as fundamental to understanding social behavior. Other branches include military, consumer, educational, cross-cultural, and environmental psychology, and the number of arms continues to grow.

What all of these approaches have in common is the desire to explain the behavior of individuals based on the functioning of the mind. In all areas, psychologists apply scientific methodology. They formulate theories, test hypotheses through observation and experiments, and analyze the results with statistical techniques that help them identify important findings to help individuals.

Celebrities who studied psychology

Some famous people who studied psychology that you probably don't know are. International actress Natalie Portman, national actor Leonardo Miggiorin, presenter Eliana, Facebook creator Mark Zuckerberg, Brazilian presenter Tiago Leifert and the great Brazilian actress Marisa Orth.

So what is psychology for?

The mind is highly complex and conditions related to it can be difficult to treat. Physical signs of some mental health problems can be seen, such as the plaques that develop with Alzheimer's disease. Opposite to this, many psychology theories are based on the observation of human behavior.

A clinical psychologist will meet with patients and carry out assessments to find out what their concerns are. Therefore, observe what is causing any difficulty, and recommend or provide treatment. For example, through counseling and psychotherapy. Additionally, psychologists can have other roles as well.

· Conduct studies to advise health authorities and other bodies on social strategies.

· Assess children who have difficulty learning at school.

· Provide workshops on how to prevent bullying.

· Work with recruitment teams in companies and much more.

Among the main objectives of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and improve human behavior.

The work of psychologists is highly varied, but they all share an overarching goal. This goal is to help people have a better life. Our daily lives are profoundly impacted by the way we interpret hundreds of stimuli (positive or negative) we receive every day. In other words, quality of life occurs when these stimuli are correctly absorbed and given meaning, so as not to harm our lives.

In conclusion, psychologists are skilled at understanding the role these factors play in influencing health, happiness, and overall well-being. Getting in touch with psychology helps you gain a richer understanding of the many ways in which the mind affects your own life.

BY ARTUR SCARPATO – CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

, a relatively new element.

Calcium element

Find out the percentage of this element on the Earth and the Moon.

• magnesium element

Where can it be found and what are its main functions.

• sodium element

Discover the main characteristics and uses of sodium!

• artificial elements

Artificial elements are atoms of chemical elements not found on the Earth's surface and that were synthesized, that is, created in the laboratory.

• natural and synthetic elements

Check out the main characteristics of natural and synthetic elements here!

• sulfur

Click and learn everything (atomic characteristics, ways of obtaining, properties) about the chemical element sulfur.

Strontium

Metal used in cathode ray tubes for color televisions.

Insoluble iron: properties of this element

The solubility of metals in water.

• argon gas

Gas used in the conservation of oxidizable materials.

• krypton gas

Check out the resources and applications of krypton gas here!

• neon gas

Click here and discover how neon gas is obtained, also see where it is commonly used!

Hydrogen

Click and learn about the history, characteristics, ways of obtaining and the main uses of the chemical element Hydrogen.

Iodine

Check out the importance of iodine for the body and what the food sources of this mineral are!

Lithium

Discover the properties and uses of the lightest metal there is.

• metallic mercury

Be aware of the dangers offered by this heavy metal.

• nickel

The toxic effects of this metal on our body.

• nitrogen

Click and discover everything about the element Nitrogen, as well as the forms in which it can be found in nature.

• oxygen

Access this link to learn about the main c

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characteristics of the most abundant element on the Earth's surface, oxygen. Know the properties and peculiarities of its atoms, the importance of its allotropic forms, in addition to the applications of this element in general.

Platinum

Click and see the atomic and physical characteristics, history, achievements and uses of the chemical element Platinum!

• Potassium

In nature, potassium is a metal, in our body it is a mineral. Click and understand!

• Radon

Radon, family of noble gases, decay of uranium-238, position of radon in the periodic table, presence of radon in nature, physical characteristics of radon, applications of radon.

• Rubidium

Click here to learn about the characteristics and uses of rubidium!

• titanium

• Learn more about the characteristics, properties and uses of titanium. Click here!

• Ununocio

Discover how this element was synthesized in the laboratory.

• Xenon

Click here to learn about the main resources, uses and also curiosities about xenon.

• zirconium

Discover the chemical element zirconium, its discovery, its properties and main applications in industry and everyday life.

Chemical elements and their functions

Hydrogen:

H (hydrogen)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• missile fuel;

• hydrogenation of fats;

Balloon filling;

• oil desulfurization.

metals:

REPS:

Na (sodium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• table salt;

Organic syntheses;

• Street lighting;

• cooling for the atomic reactor;

• accumulator;

• sodium hydroxide;

• glass.

Be (beryllium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• window for x-ray tubes;

• material to slow down

neutrons without atomic reactors;

• spring (for watches);

• spark-free tools.

Al (aluminum)

Daily applications:

Car, rocket, plane;

• windows, doors, windows, pans; Illustration:

• sheet, tube, cable;

• lighting, fireworks;

• concrete;

• tooth filling.

K (potassium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• glass lenses;

• chemical fertilizers;

• phosphorus, gunpowder;

• oxygen mask;

Salt diet.

Ca (calcium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• plaster, cement, cement;

• metal preparation;

• sheath for the accumulator cable;

• chemical fertilizers;

• loading paper and ink material.

TRANSITION:

Sc (scandium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• seed germination;

• Leak detector;

• material for space activities.

V (vanadium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

•Tools;

• construction material;

• jet engine;

• catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.

Rh (rhodium)

Daily applications: Illustration:

• headlight reflector;

• telephone retransmission;

• fountain pen tip;

• exhaust gas catalyst;

• aircraft engine spark plug.

Ass (copper)

Daily applications: ...

PHYSIOLOGY

More information about physiology, study of the functions of living beings

What is physiology

Physiology is a biological science that studies the functions (physical, organic, biochemical) of living beings. The word is of Greek origin, where physis means nature and logos means study or knowledge.

Physiology brings together important principles of physics, chemistry and mathematics, giving meaning to the interactions of the basic elements of a living being with the environment.

There are three main areas of fusology:

- Animal physiology (includes human physiology)

- Plant physiology

- Bacterial physiology

Vital functions

Vital functions refer to the necessary functions performed by every living being to maintain life. Even single-celled living beings can perform vital functions, since the only existing cell can perform them independently.

There are three main vital functions: nutrition, reproduction and relationship with the environment.

Major vital functions

Nutrition

Nutrition brings together all the activities that living beings carry out to obtain the matter and energy essential for life. Nutrition consists of several factors:

- Food: the survival of living beings is only possible with the ingestion of foods that provide the proteins and nutrients necessary for their development. There are two types of nutrition: heterotrophic and autotrophic. The first is used by humans and animals and is based on the production of matter from organic matter. In other words, food is digested and reduced to simple molecules. The digestive system is fundamental, with digestion, which is a chemical and mechanical process in which the breakdown of nutrient molecules, such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids, occurs.

The second type of nutrition is used by plants and consists of the creation of organic matter from inorganic matter, through photosynthesis.

- Circulation: circulation is essential for matter to reach all parts of the body. Circulation occurs through blood tissue and blood circulates through vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries. Human circulation is double, closed and complete.

- Excretion: excretion is the elimination of metabolic

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s resulting from chemical reactions in the body's cells. These residues, such as ammonia, urea and uric acid, cannot remain in the bloodstream as they are toxic. In the case of humans and animals, waste is eliminated through urine and feces, thanks to the excretory system.

- Breathing: breathing is included in nutrition, as it is the metabolic process that allows us to process and maintain the energy we obtain through food. It is represented by the processes of inspiration (oxygen entering the body) and expiration (expulsion of carbon dioxide). The respiratory system is made up of the airways through the lungs.

reproduction

Reproduction is the vital function that guarantees the survival of the species, transmitting genes to future generations. There are two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is what requires two individuals of the opposite sex and is accomplished by the union of sex cells (eggs and sperm), or gametes, from each individual, which is called fertilization. Asexual reproduction is that of unicellular beings, in which only one individual intervenes.

Relationship with the environment

It allows living beings to perceive changes in the environment, internal and external, and develop responses to these stimuli. In this way, the relationship of living beings with each other and with the environment becomes possible and the guarantee of survival.

PHYSIOLOGY

Human vital functions

Discover the vital functions for the functioning of the human machine:

Digestion

Chemical and mechanical process in which nutrient molecules decompose. These nutrients are lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The way of feeding is as follows: mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine (fasting), large intestine and rectum, where feces come out.

The liver emulsifies fats, facilitating the action of lipases. The hormones involved in digestion are: gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and enterogastrone. All secreted by the epithelial cells of the digestive tract.

The intestinal folds or villi are formed by blood and lymphatic vessels, connective tissue and epithelial tissue with microvilli, which increases the absorption surface.

Tips: remember that gastric (stomach) enzymes do not break down carbohydrates, but only proteins, due to the action of pepsin, which is activated by HCl in gastric juice.

Trypsin and chyme trypsin are initially in the form of trypsinogen and chyme trypsinogen, which are activated by enterokinase in the duodenum when pancreatic juice is released.

Monosaccharides are obtained from disaccharides in the small intestine by the action of enteric enzymes: maltase is sealed and removed.

All food is used as a source of energy or construction of living matter.

Whatever is in excess will be stored in the form of lipids, in adipocytes (fat or adipose tissue cells). When there is a lack of nutrients, fats begin to be mobilized as a source of energy and the person loses weight.

Digestive tract problems:

Peptic ulcer - caused by drugs or the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, the lining of the stomach or duodenum cannot be defended and gastric acidity attacks this lining and lesions and wounds appear, causing pain and heartburn; Constipation occurs when the peristaltic movements of the intestine are very slow and waste remains in the intestine for a long time, where it hardens due to the large reabsorption of water; Diarrhea occurs when the small intestine becomes irritated and peristaltic movements are too rapid.

Liver functions: storage of glucose in the form of glycogen, storage of certain vitamins, transformation of carbohydrates into lipids and proteins, production of bile, among others...

Excretion:

Elimination of metabolic waste resulting from chemical reactions in the body's cells. This nitrogen excretion cannot remain in the bloodstream because it is toxic. They can be ammonia, urea and uric acid.

• Ammonotelic animals: expel ammonia because it is a substance that is very soluble in water;

• Uricotelic animals: expel uric acid, which is poorly soluble and does not require a significant amount of water;

• Urothelic animals: expel urea, which requires little water and is well adapted to human excretion, as we need to save as much water as possible.

Our excretion is carried out by nephrons, which are the filtering unit of the kidneys. There are about one million nephrons in each kidney. Our kidney is of the metanephros type, as it removes all metabolites directly from the blood. 99% of the water is reabsorbed and urine is formed in the collecting duct, stored in the bladder and released through the urethra.

Tip: Two hormones act on human excretion: aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is released from the pituitary gland and facilitates water reabsorption in the nephrons. Alcohol inhibits ADH, producing more dilute and abundant urine. Aldosterone, from the adrenal glands, increases the reabsorption of ions in the nephron tubules and, therefore, the

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in the osmotic control of blood.

Urinary tract problems:

Uremia - high blood urea velocity;

Glomerulonephritis - inflammation of the glomeruli.

Kidney stones - accumulation of mineral salt crystals in the kidneys and the possibility increases due to low water intake.

Breathing

Represented by the processes of inspiration and expiration. The respiratory system is made up of the airways and lungs. Inspired air, rich in oxygen, fills the lungs at the level of the alveoli (bags in which gas exchange with the blood occurs (hematosis). The lungs are protected by the rib cage, formed by the sternum and ribs. They are made up of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

When we inhale, the box expands and the diaphragm descends, taking in air. When we exhale, the chest returns to normal and the diaphragm rises again, expelling air, full of carbon dioxide. The blood must nourish the tissues and therefore absorb nutrients and respiratory gases. When it reaches the cells of different tissues, an exchange occurs between them and arterial blood, which releases oxygen and receives carbon dioxide, which is carried mainly in the form of bicarbonate ions, but is also dissolved in plasma and connected to hemoglobin.

Carbon dioxide is the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of water with carbon dioxide in the blood. Hemoglobin is the pigment in red blood cells that gives them their characteristic color and, through its iron ions, transports inspired oxygen to all cells in the body. This oxygen will be used for cellular respiration, with an energy balance of 38 ATP.

Tip: CO (carbon monoxide), an odorless gas, creates a highly stable bond with hemoglobin, preventing the transport of oxygen. If an individual is exposed to CO for a prolonged period, they may die from asphyxiation.

At higher elevations, the air is thinner and oxygen availability is lower. People who live at sea level, when they reach these altitudes, feel the impact of oxygen deficiency. To make up for this deficiency, the body begins to produce more red blood cells in the bone marrow, through the action of the hormone erythropoietin and, therefore, there will be a greater number of hemoglobin molecules to capture more oxygen.

Breathing problems:

Flu and colds - caused by viruses, which attack the respiratory tract, sinuses and ears;

Tuberculosis and pneumonia - caused by bacteria. The trachea and bronchi can become inflamed, which can cause acute bronchitis, which can reach the lungs - bronchopneumonia. Chronic bronchitis occurs due to constant irritation of the airways due to smoking, allergies and air pollution. Emphysema is a progressive destruction of the alveoli,

mainly caused by smoking. Asthma is an inflammatory reaction in the bronchi, with edema, hypersecretion of mucus and smooth muscle contraction, which causes shortness of breath.

Circulation:

Circulation occurs through blood tissue. Blood circulates through vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries. Human circulation is double, closed and complete. Blood passes through the heart twice in a complete circuit that lasts about 1 minute. The heart is made up of four cavities: two atria and two ventricles.

The right atrium receives venous blood from the body through the vena cava. The right ventricle pumps this blood to the lungs, where hematosis occurs, through the pulmonary artery. Arterial blood enters the left atrium and is pumped to the body through left ventricular systole and leaves the heart through the aorta and carotid arteries.

The cavities are separated by valves, and there are also valves between the ventricles and the vessels through which blood flows. The myocardium is the heart muscle (striated cardiac muscle - involuntary movements). It has a certain independence in relation to the nervous system, as it allows heartbeats through bundles of cells that transmit an electrical impulse that allows the systole and diastole movements of the atria and both ventricles. It is the sinoatrial node; the atrioventricular node; the hissing bundle and the purkinje fibers.

Arterial blood absorbs nutrients, respiratory gases, and hormones into tissues and collects excreta and carbon dioxide. The exchange occurs at the level of capillaries, very thin vessels, and what leaks and does not return due to the difference in pressure in the arterial and venous part of the capillary, is collected by the lymphatic circulation, which also transports lymphocytes, the body's defense cells. What is collected is later returned to the blood through the subclavian veins.

Tip: a vein is every vessel that enters the heart and an artery is every vessel that leaves the heart, regardless of the type of blood I carry (arterial or venous).

Circulatory tract problems:

• Atherosclerosis: hardening of blood vessels due to the deposition of fatty plaques (atheroma);

• Ischemia: difficulty in transporting oxygen and oxygenating cells in ge

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ral;

• Thrombosis - blockage of a vessel, preventing the passage of blood;

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) - rupture of an artery in the brain due to a sudden increase in blood pressure;

• Heart attack: death of the myocardium due to obstruction of the arteries that feed the heart, the coronary arteries. Symptoms are angina pectoris (pain in the left chest that radiates to the arm), neck pain, sweating and breathing difficulties.

Causes of heart and circulatory problems: sedentary lifestyle (lack of exercise), obesity, foods rich in animal fats and trans fats, smoking, stress, depression and use of anabolic steroids.

GENES

What are genes, heredity, human genome, genetics, DNA and RNA, chromosomes.

What is that

The gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleic acids (the most important biomolecules in cellular control, as they contain genetic information. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid - DNA and ribonucleic acid - RNA).

Functions, location and other information

Genes control not only the structure and metabolic functions of cells, but also the entire organism. When found in reproductive cells, they pass their information to the next generation.

The gene is made up of a DNA sequence that forms nucleotides (compounds rich in energy and that help metabolic processes, mainly biosynthesis in most cells).

Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, a pentose (sugar with five carbon atoms) and a phosphate group. Nitrogen bases can be classified into: pyrimidine and purine.

The gene is usually found interspersed with non-protein-coding DNA sequences. These strands are called "useless DNA". When this type of DNA occurs within a gene, the coded part is classified as the noncoding part.

Useless DNA makes up 97% of the human genome, and despite the name, the genes must function properly.

Each species has a defined number of chromosomes. Changes in the number or arrangement of genes can cause genetic mutations.

When mutations occur in germ cells (egg or sperm), the changes can be passed on to future generations. Mutations that affect somatic cells can cause some types of cancer.

The genetic composition of an organism (genotype) plus the influence received from the environment will be responsible for the phenotype, that is, the observable characteristics of the individual.

The sum total of genes is called the genome. Research carried out with the aim of identifying the location and function of each gene is known as the human genome.

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry studies transformations involving matter and energy.

Chemistry is a branch of natural sciences that studies matter, its properties, its constitution, its transformations and the energy involved in these processes.

Matter is the main object of study in chemistry and can be defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, that is, the entire material world around us and even ourselves.

Regardless of form, origin (present on our planet or universe) or living or dead, there is no material that is beyond the reach of chemistry.

Chemistry has a huge impact on technology and our society, as its studies play a fundamental role in the development of all branches of science. After all, it is through the study of matter that we can understand the properties and possible transformations that each substance can undergo and then use this knowledge to our advantage.

It is very easy to see the different contributions made by Chemistry throughout the history of humanity. Among these, we can highlight:

• development of processed foods;

• Increased shelf life of products;

• Increase the effectiveness and action of cosmetics;

• Development of medicines to combat the most varied diseases;

• Development of alternative fuel sources;

• Production of substances in the laboratory;

• Development of techniques and solutions for environmental problems.

Chemistry is a science with three basic levels:

1. Macroscopic: transformations that can be observed, that is, that deal with properties that involve large and visible objects;

2. Microscopic: is the interpretation of macroscopic phenomena through transformations that we cannot see directly, such as the rearrangement of atoms;

3. Symbolic: chemical symbols, such as molecular, structural and electronic formulas, as well as mathematical equations and formulas, are used to represent the transformations and phenomena studied.

In this space, you can clarify all your doubts about the most varied topics and questions involving Chemistry, or all the knowledge related to the main areas of Chemistry required in the entrance exams still in force and in Enem, namely:

Q

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General chemistry:

- It matters

- Physical states of matter

- Properties of matter

- Substances and mixtures

- To Tom

Inorganic chemistry:

- Acids

- Fundamentals

- Oxides

- To enter

- Chemical reactions related to the substances highlighted above

physicochemical:

- Solutions

- Collective properties

- Chemical kinetics

- Thermochemistry

- Electrochemistry

- Chemical balance

- Radioactivity

Organic chemistry:

- Characteristics of carbon

- Oxygenated organic functions

- Organic functions of nitrogen

- Isomeries

- Organic reactions

- Polymers

- Biochemistry

Environmental chemistry

- Air pollution

- Water pollution

- Ground pollution

- Acid rain

Depletion of the ozone layer

- Garbage disposal

- Waste recycling

Now, feel free to click on each of the texts proposed below and further expand your knowledge of chemical science.

BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY

Biochemistry is the part of biology that deals with the chemical processes that occur in living organisms.

The discovery of the structure of DNA has been fundamental to the advancement of biochemistry

Biochemistry is the part of biology responsible for studying the structure, organization and molecular transformations that occur in the cell. These transformations configure what we call metabolism, which is none other than the extremely coordinated reactions, fundamental to guarantee the survival, growth and reproduction of living organisms.

Metabolism is generally classified into anabolism or catabolism. In the first case, chemical reactions are focused on the synthesis of complex molecular structures from simple molecules. In the case of catabolism, complex molecules are broken down into simpler structures. It is worth mentioning that both processes occur in all living cells.

Biochemical processes of living beings

On a biochemical level, despite the great diversity of life forms, many structures and processes are shared by very different living beings, which facilitates the understanding of life as a whole. All species, for example, are composed of basic elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and complex molecules, which carry out chemical processes to produce the energy necessary for survival.

In general, we can say that all organisms carry out four basic biochemical processes to maintain life:

Synthesis of biomolecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids;

Transport of substances through membranes;

Production of energy;

Elimination of metabolites and toxic substances.

Biochemical discoveries

Among the main biochemical results that deserve to be highlighted, we can mention the understanding of the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the understanding of the importance of the gene in protein synthesis, the determination of the structure of proteins and the understanding of metabolic pathways.

Understanding these processes was, without a doubt, fundamental for the development of different areas, such as biotechnology, medicine and agriculture. In the field of medicine, for example, we can highlight the importance of this science in advancing genetics and understanding metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and even degenerative problems. In the agricultural sector, the development of transgenic varieties has ensured greater crop success.

We observe, therefore, that biochemistry is nothing more than the study of the chemistry involved in all living beings, and is therefore fundamental for understanding the processes that allow the maintenance of life and the development of techniques that guarantee a better quality of life. product. life for everyone. It is worth mentioning that, despite the great development of the area, there is still a lot to be studied and constant investments are essential in this field of study.

Check out the texts displayed below to learn more about the chemistry of life! Good studies!!!

ALCHEMY

Alchemy is an ancient practice, ancient chemistry practiced in the medieval era. It combines in its broad cognitive spectrum notions of chemistry, physics, astrology, art, metallurgy, medicine, mysticism and religion. The most widespread belief is that alchemists try to find in the Philosopher's Stone, a mythical substance, the power to transform everything into gold and, even more, to provide those who find it with eternal life and a cure for all ills.

According to researchers, however, Alchemy goes further. Its objectives have a symbolic value, which means that its practitioners are actually seeking something greater: spiritual transmutation. Therefore, the famous Elixir of long life would be nothing more than a resource of the human organism, capable of granting those who carry out the long process of spiritual purification a life extended to infinity. It is also said that this substance is an important point in the philosophy of Yoga.

Alchemists attempted to intensify the search for this elixir through laboratory experiments that used the four elements essential to alchemical work: fire, water, earth and air.

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. In extreme observation of nature and its components, alchemists achieved very important knowledge, some of which has recently been absorbed by quantum physics, as proof that all things are interconnected in the cosmos. This holistic vision contributed greatly to the treatments carried out by the Swiss doctor Philippus Paracelsus, who started from this point of view in his mission as a healer. He believed that substances such as salt, mercury and sulfur permeate all living beings, even the human organism.

Currently, this same belief is saved by anthroposophy, a spiritualist current that also compares the concepts of alchemy with the active forces of the soul - thought would correspond to salt; the feeling of mercury and the desire for sulfur. Some of its thinkers see the gold pursued by alchemists as a representation of the "self", the human essence.

Alchemy is not currently considered a science, as scientific knowledge is conceived today, but a spiritual vision more interested in ancient traditions than in discovering new things is considered an ancestor of modern chemistry and medicine. In addition to chemical experiments with alchemists, there was a constant concern with carrying out a series of rituals.

Alchemy also addressed some points of Kabbalah and Magic, in addition to cultivating a hermetic philosophy. From Kabbalistic theory, alchemy inherited the search for the harmony of opposites. The Philosopher's Stone could, therefore, be the search for perfection, which could not be achieved without the balance between the polarities that man possesses. Therefore, the manipulation of metals would be a symbol of the spiritual metamorphosis that permeates all living beings. But there are many interpretations of alchemical texts and, to date, there has been no consensus on the real meaning of alchemical symbols. Filed under: Philosophy, Chemistry

The secret of alchemy

For Celsus simplifies the mysterious, magical and supernatural concept of alchemy and clarifies: "The baker is also an alchemist, who converts flour into bread, who produces wine and weaves the thread with his strength".

Alchemy is the mother of chemistry, allopathy, homeopathy, but it totally differs from the current sense of pharmacy and laboratory.

Alchemy is physical, psychic and spiritual. It gives a deifying meaning and humanizes everything.

As alchemy is the greatest treatise in hermetic philosophy, it is based on immutable principles, which are the states of matter: the volatile, which goes beyond the gaseous state, the solid, the liquid and the pasty.

It is the "tree" that best represents it: the tree's life begins in a volatile state, where pollen from its flowers is carried through the air. It is solid in the consistency of its trunk. It becomes pasty in the sap, in the resin, in the milk, in the latex. Become liquid in coconut water and fruit juice. It is partly animal in its composition. It is a mineral that is made from stone when it becomes amber, when it is made from incense. He is a magician, human and divine, due to his alchemical function.

The phrase that symbolizes alchemy: "solvi-te corpora et coagulate spiritum" (dissolve the body and coagulate the spirit).

No other science allows this type of transmutation, metamorphosis to be achieved.

The secret lies in the same process that differentiates the brain from the computer.

The computer only knows what is programmed.

As for the brain, what we program with knowledge ferments and resonates throughout the body, mind and soul. As it is a universal treatise, it can extract the essence of a star, a plant, a mineral or a man.

The spirit is solar, the body is terrestrial and the soul is the alchemical fusion of body and spirit.

Also: mercury, sulfur and salt, they give us an equivalence to the trinity or the "fineness".

Mercury is the creator.

Sulfur is the conservative.

Salt is the pain transmuter.

To transform lead into gold, that is, negative into positive:

Metaphysics is the basis of philosophy and also the branch responsible for studying the existence of being.

Through metaphysics, an interpretation of the world, nature, constitution and basic structures of reality is sought.

What is that?

The word metaphysics derives from the Greek and the prefix "meta" means "beyond". The first philosopher to treat the topic systematically was Aristotle.

In fact, he himself called this idea "first philosophy" because he understood it to be the foundation of philosophical reflection. Therefore, the term metaphysics was not coined by him, but by one of his disciples who organized his work.

In addition to "first philosophy", Aristotle studied the "science of being as it is". So he was interested in questioning what makes history different and at the same time private.

Aristotle

Unlike Plato, Aristotle thought that the principles of reality were not in the intelligible world, but in our sensible world. Reality is subject to time and space.

Aristotle stated that four causes condition the existence of beings:

1. Material cause: the body is composed of matter. like blood, skin, muscle

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ulus, bone, etc.

2. Form: if, on the one hand, we have matter, we also have a form. One head, two arms, two legs, etc. Therefore, this form transforms us into unique beings that differ from others.

3. Efficient: why do we exist? The first answer is because someone created us. This would be an answer from the "efficient cause" field: we exist because we were created.

4. Final: we exist for something. This answer transcends the previous one because we are facing a goal, a target. All beings were created for a purpose. The field of philosophy he studies is called "theologian already".

Kant

It is common to know that Kant (1724-1804) would have killed metaphysics. However, what Kant meant is that the human being is incapable of answering some metaphysical questions, such as the existence of God and the soul, for example.

Kant will try to evaluate the reason. If I can't find rational evidence, I don't need to deal with these questions, or at least they don't belong in the realm of reason.

So Kant will change the questions. Instead of asking what is truth, he will ask himself how truth exists.

Kant set out his thoughts in the work "The Foundation of Metaphysics of Customs", written in 1785.

The history of metaphysics is divided into three periods:

1. First period: begins with Plato and Aristotle (between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC) and ends with David Hume (18th century). At this stage, metaphysics has been understood as a reflection of being in its most general sense. One of the great scholars of this time would be Thomas Aquinas, who recovered Aristotelian philosophy and applied it to his theological studies.

2. Second period: begins with Immanuel Kant, during the 18th century, and ends in the 20th century with Edmund Husserl and his studies on phenomenology. Kant will continue Hume's studies, emphasizing the primacy of reason over the transcendental questions raised by metaphysics.

3. Third period: is the period that begins in the second decade of the 20th century until the present day. It corresponds to contemporary metaphysical studies. The most negative criticisms of metaphysics arise with the recovery of materialism and the creation of positivism. On the other hand, at the end of the 20th century, we have a renaissance of metaphysics through esoteric currents.

4. Ontology

The area of ​​philosophy that deals with the nature of being, which is the reality and existence of things, and metaphysical questions in general, is called ontology.

In the philosophical sense, it has several definitions and some authors consider it the study of contemporary metaphysics.

The word derives from the union of the Greek words ontos (being) and logos (word).

ethic

Ethics is a set of moral systems that influence the way people make decisions. It can be defined as a moral philosophy.

The term ethics derives from the Greek word ethos, which means habits, customs or character.

Ethics is addressed in different segments of society, such as religion, politics, philosophy and culture.

While metaphysical studies are a being, ethics deals with cause and effect. For Aristotle, ethics is based on metaphysics.

Epistemology

Epistemology is the study of the origin and acquisition of knowledge, therefore, there is a specific area to verify the validity of metaphysics knowledge.

Today, modern epistemology is based on two fundamental points: empiricism and rationalism.

Positivism

Positivism is the main current in opposition to metaphysics. Positivist thinking maintains that the objective of science is logic. Emotions and thoughts are not considered.

Man is composed of body and soul, although in some cases the term "spirit" is added. Both the soul and the spirit are contrasted with the body to express the incorporeal part of man. There is, however, a distinction between soul and spirit. The word "soul" is used to express the immortal moral part of the human being, and is sometimes used for "person", as in the verse in Genesis 46:26, which says: "All the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt" " "Eight souls are saved" (1 Pet. 3:20). "The sinful soul will die" (Ezek. 18:4).

The Hebrew word usually translated as "soul" is nefesh. In many passages it translates "life", as in Jonah 1:14: "...we did not perish by this man's life." In the New Testament, the same Greek word is used for soul and life: "For whoever wants to save his life (or soul) will lose it, and whoever loses his life (or soul) for my sake will find it. Why does a man gain the whole world loses its soul (or life)? Or what will man give in exchange for his soul (or life)?

It is in the soul, as distinct from the spirit, that appetites and desires are found. The rich man said, "And I will say to my soul, Alma, that you have many possessions laid up for many years: rest, eat, drink, and take a break" (Luke 12:19). That night, his "soul" was sought. The salvation of the soul cannot be separated from the salvation of the person.

The spirit is clearly the highest part of man. It marks consciousness, individuality and distinguishes man from

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s inferior creatures of creation. God breathed into man's nostrils the breath of life, and so man was placed in a relationship with God, and he cannot be truly happy apart from him and his existence, present and eternal. The same words used in the original Hebrew and Greek for "spirit" are also used constantly for the Spirit di Dio or the Holy Spirit, and they are also used for angels, in the sense of spirits and for evil spirits.

The Word of God is sharp and capable of dividing a man's soul and spirit, although it cannot be easy for the human mind to perceive this division. The apostle prayed for the Thessalonians that the spirit (which is probably shown as the place where God works) and the soul and body might be sanctified (1 Thessalonians 5:23). In the Epistle to the Jews we read of the "spirits" of the perfect righteous; Your place is with God through redemption. Apparently the word there means the person separated from his body.

The Christian, having received the Holy Spirit as the source of life in Christ, is urged to pray with the spirit, to sing with the spirit, to walk in the Spirit, so that in some cases it becomes difficult to distinguish between the Spirit of God and the Spirit. Christian spirit.

What is homogeneous:

Homogeneous is an adjective attributed to everything that has the same nature or has a similar structure or function, compared to something else.

Generally, the term is used in situations where it is not possible to clearly determine the composition or formation of a specific thing or space, for example.

Examples:

Agricultural land is much more homogeneous.

This article about the country's economy contains very homogeneous information.

This term can also be used to refer to something in order to express consistency or demonstrate a correspondence between two things.

Examples:

This is a characteristic of a homogeneous government.

The journalist presented a very homogeneous text.

Homogeneous in chemistry

For the area of ​​chemistry, the term homogeneous is connected to the system that is composed of a mixture of substances that contains only one phase (single phase) when two or more elements are mixed.

When we say that a mixture is homogeneous, we mean that its composition is uniform, that is, that the components mix easily and it is not possible to perceive the substances separately.

Difference Between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

In chemistry, the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous lies precisely in the fact that pure substances mix. So, what defines whether a mixture is classified as heterogeneous or homogeneous is the way in which the substances used are mixed and whether the result will have one or more phases.

Mixtures can be formed from two or more pure substances and will be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

In this sense, a homogeneous mixture is one that visibly presents a single phase. The heterogeneous mixture, on the other hand, has two or more phases, being two-phase or three-phase, for example.

Salt water is an example of a homogeneous single-phase mixture, that is, it has only one phase. This occurs because, when mixing water and salt, it is not possible to notice the difference or separation of the substances that make up this mixture.

Water and oil are the best-known examples of a heterogeneous mixture, since these substances are well mixed. In this case, it is a heterogeneous two-phase mixture, as it is possible to perceive each of the substances separately.

See also the meaning of heterogeneous.

Homogeneous in mathematics

In mathematics, the term homogeneous refers to an equation in which the terms that make up the expression have the same value, the same degree or the same direction.

In the so-called homogeneous linear equation, the result of the equation formed by independent terms will always be equal to zero.

See this example: 3a + 2b - c = 0.

Synonyms for homogeneous

The term can be replaced by synonyms such as: equal, analogous, identical, equal, similar, similar, similar, uniform, simple, connected, smooth, even, cohesive, harmonious, coherent, cohesive, balanced.

WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is the area of ​​natural sciences that studies phenomena that occur with matter in space and time.

The word physics has its origin in the Greek term Physiké, which means "nature", its use/meaning is always related to the word episteme, which, of Greek origin, also means "knowledge", "science". Therefore, physics was defined as: The science that studies nature.

However, this was the definition given by the Greeks of ancient Greece. For them, all natural phenomena were intriguing and there was no distinction between a body falling, a plant sprouting, and wine fermenting.

Over time, there was a division of natural sciences and thus chemistry, biology and physics were born - which began to have their own field of study.

Physics attempts to describe, predict and justify by law the phenomena that occur with matter in the

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space and time.

The phenomena studied by physics are present everywhere, in our daily lives, on our planet, in other galaxies, in short, throughout the universe. When dealing with these phenomena, Physics uses the scientific method, since hypotheses must be confirmed by experiments; thus, predictions are made and it is possible to check whether the experiments conform to these predictions.

Physics is traditionally divided into branches. Each branch groups the study of facts that have similar properties and that can be related and described by common laws.

So, here are the branches of physics:

Mechanics: studies the movements of bodies.

Thermology: studies phenomena related to temperature and heat.

Optics: studies phenomena related to light.

Wave: studies phenomena related to waves, their characteristics, properties and behaviors.

Electricity and magnetism: studies electrical and magnetic phenomena.

Modern physics: deals with physics developed in the 20th century, which can include relativity, quantum physics and nuclear physics.

What is quantum physics:

Quantum physics is a branch of theoretical science that studies all phenomena that occur with atomic and subatomic particles, that is, those equal to or inferior to atoms, such as electrons, protons, molecules and photons, for example.

All these microparticles cannot be studied from the point of view of classical physics, as they are not influenced by the laws that compose them, such as gravity, the law of inertia, action and reaction, etc.

Unlike classical physics, quantum physics is classified as "nonintuitive," meaning that in this branch of study, certain things are true even when they appear not to be. In fact, because it is considered non-intuitive, quantum physics has become known as a "false theory".

Also known as quantum mechanics, this revolutionary theory of modern physics emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, with the physicist Max Planck (1858-1947), who was one of the pioneers in the development of its basic principles and which contradicted most of the time. basic laws of classical physics. Planck was responsible, for example, for creating the "Planck constant" (E = h.v).

However, it was Albert Einstein, the creator of the theory of relativity, who first named Planck's quantum equation (a Latin word meaning "quantity"). Quantum is a reference to the physical event of quantization that consists of the instantaneous change of electrons that contain a minimum level of energy into a higher level if they are heated.

Although the theory of quantum physics focuses on microscopic phenomena, they are reflected in all macroscopic aspects, since everything in the universe is made up of molecules, atoms and other subatomic particles.

During the 20th century, several scientists and physicists contributed to the development of quantum physical theory, such as: Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976), Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Erwin Schrödinger (1887) . - 1961), Max Born (1882-1970), John von Neumann (1903-1957), Richard Feynman (1918-1988), Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958), among others.

Since then, quantum physics has become the basic theory of many other branches of physics and chemistry, such as atomic physics, nuclear physics, molecular physics, quantum chemistry, particle physics, etc. In fact, the principles of quantum physics are also applied in various sectors of human knowledge, revolutionizing not only the exact sciences, but also philosophical currents.

The main link between quantum physics and philosophical and spiritual concepts, according to defenders of this relationship, is the condition of randomness and uncertainty of this theory, according to which it is possible to have two different and simultaneous situations for a given subatomic body.

This principle was observed in quantum physics by the so-called "wave-particle duality", that is, when a particle behaves like a particle or like a wave, a completely abnormal statement before classical physics.

From this idea, for example, different theoretical study hypotheses emerge, such as the "multiple worlds theory", according to which it is possible to have different alternative realities for each individual.

Quantum physics and spirituality

This relationship is controversial, as it consists of the debate between two distinct groups, one formed by those who defend the veracity of quantum influence on the spiritual plane and the other who completely deny the use of quantum mechanics as a way of explaining spirituality.

For those who defend the existence of a relationship between quantum physics and spiritual physics, the power of human thought can exert great power over the individual reality of each person, being, with the correct indications, capable of altering the world around them. ..

Quantum physics and thought

Several internationally renowned physicists relate the principles of quantum physics to theories of

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human science and the power of thought as a "builder" of reality.

In short, the human mind would have a profound capacity to influence the arrangement of atomic microparticles around people, the way they behave and how they construct each individual's reality. For scholars who believe in this idea, people's intentions influence the construction of reality.

THE FIVE KINGDOMS OF LIVING BEINGS

Discover the five kingdoms of living beings and discover more about their differences.

Animals and plants are classified respectively into the kingdoms Animalia and Plantae.

We know that, according to their similarities, all living beings are grouped into different categories, varying from kingdom to species. A kingdom is the most widespread category and includes living beings with similar characteristics but some important peculiarities.

Currently, we consider the existence of five kingdoms: Monera, Protista or Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. This classification was proposed by researcher Whittaker in 1969 and is still one of the most accepted and studied in elementary and secondary education.

The kingdom of Monera is a group of very simple beings. All members are made up of a single cell (single cell) and do not have a defined nucleus (prokaryotic cell). Some representatives are able to produce their own food (autotrophic), while others need to consume their nutrients from other living organisms (heterotrophic). All species of bacteria and cyanobacteria are included in this group.

The protist or protoctist kingdom, unlike the Monera kingdom, does not have individuals with prokaryotic cells, all of which are eukaryotic representatives. In this group, we find unicellular and multicellular beings and also organisms with autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. This kingdom has very different organisms, and many people even claim that there are beings grouped within it that simply do not adapt to other kingdoms. As representatives, we can mention protozoa and algae.

Paramecium is an example of a representative of the protoctist kingdom

The mushroom kingdom features unicellular or multicellular organisms with one eukaryotic cell. All representatives, unlike the kingdoms above, are heterotrophic, that is, unable to harm their food. This is the main characteristic that allows us to distinguish this group of plants. All mushrooms, molds and yeasts are included in this kingdom.

The kingdom of Plantae is composed exclusively of autotrophic organisms that have eukaryotic and multicellular cells. It is a very diverse group and includes all the plants on the planet. Despite the appearance of algae plants, this last group cannot be grouped in this kingdom. However, evidence shows that plants have green algae as ancestors.

Finally, we have the kingdom Animalia, the kingdom to which we belong. It has representatives of heterotrophic, multicellular and eukaryotic cells. This first characteristic (heterotrophic beings) is fundamental to differentiate

this group of plants.

We still have viruses, but they are not classified in any of the domains studied. Many scholars do not consider these beings to be living, since they do not have cells or metabolism outside of the cells of their parasites. However, this is still a controversial point. Faced with this problem, viruses are studied separately.

KINGDOMS OF THE LIVING WORLD

BIOLOGY

The most accepted kingdoms of the living world today are Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Since ancient times, different ways have been proposed to classify living beings in order to facilitate the study of these organisms and understand their evolutionary relationships. The criteria used to group them are varied, which means that these systems are constantly being changed and improved.

The first classification systems were quite simple and, as technological resources were scarce, they were based on the macroscopic characteristics of each being and their lifestyle habits. For this reason, organisms were initially classified by Linnaeus into two kingdoms: animal and vegetable.

With the advancement of technology, the study of microscopic beings began and, with this, a new classification emerged. In 1866, the term protist was proposed to designate eukaryotic organisms that did not fit into the animal and plant kingdoms. Years later, protists were promoted to the kingdom.

Copeland, in 1956, suggested the creation of a kingdom to group organisms that could be considered simpler in nature: bacteria. The four kingdom system emerged, as did the kingdom of Monera, where prokaryotic beings were inserted.

Mushrooms are part of the mushroom kingdom

Later, in 1969, the five kingdoms system proposed by Whittaker emerged. Without a doubt, this is the most used system, even if there are other classifications. According to the Whittaker system, we have the kingdoms: Black Brunette,

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Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae.

Kingdom Monera: groups unicellular prokaryotic organisms, that is, they have a single cell without a nucleus delimited by a membrane. Examples: bacteria and cyanobacteria.

Kingdom Protista (currently called Protoctista): brings together unicellular and multicellular beings, eukaryotes, autotrophs or heterotrophs. Example: algae and protozoa.

The change of name from Kingdom Protista to Protoctista occurred in the 1980s and was proposed by Margulis and Schwartz. In addition to changing the names,

researchers included multicellular algae and some mushrooms in this group.

Kingdom fungi: groups eukaryotic beings, which in most cases are multicellular and heterotrophic. Examples: mushrooms, molds and yeasts.

Plants are part of the kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae or Metaphyta: includes eukaryotic multicellular organisms with autotrophic nutrition. Example: mosses, ferns, araucaria and mango.

Kingdom Animalia or Metazoa: includes eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms that have a heterotrophic diet. Example: man, dog, cow and birds.

Animals are part of the kingdom Animalia

In addition to this classification, it is currently accepted that all organisms are included in three main domains: bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. This classification was proposed by Carl Woese in 1990 and created using data from nucleoside analysis of ribosomal RNA.

The bacteria domain groups all real bacteria or simply bacteria. The domain Archaeae includes all archaea, which were previously mistakenly considered the basal group of bacteria. The Eukarya domain, in turn, is made up of all existing eukaryotic organisms, therefore included in this group, the kingdoms Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

As textbooks and most teachers still adopt the classification proposed by Whittaker, here you will find texts that follow this system.

Happy studying!

Warning: viruses are a very particular group due to the absence of cells. Therefore, they are not classified in the kingdoms of living things. It is worth mentioning that these organisms are unable to live without cells, being considered intracellular parasites as obligatory areas.

7 MEANINGS OF THE SMALL KNOWN HUMAN BODY

Taste, touch, smell, vision and hearing are not the only senses of the human body

We often hear the statement that we have five senses. But what scholars such as neurologist Alvaro Pascual-Leone and psychologists Daniel Simons and Christopher Chabris, from Harvard University in the United States, say is that our ability to perceive the world, internally and externally, goes far beyond the 5 senses of the Base Aristotelian. To get an idea of ​​what this means, we can try to answer questions like:

Imagining having your eyes closed, what does it feel like to be at a high height?

Is touch responsible for temperature perception? We wouldn't need

play, since we're just talking about tact?

If we enter a room blindfolded, what exact sense would indicate that the room is full or empty?

In a noisy place, we can choose which sound we want to focus our attention on. Is it really just hearing that can do this? What happens to the rest of the sounds we miss?

If you were confused trying to answer these questions, perhaps some of the other senses studied by scientists listed below can clarify your doubts.

proprioception:

This sense is responsible for knowing what we have and where our organs, limbs, muscles and our body as a whole are located.

nociception

It's the meaning of pain. Studies indicate that it may be associated with emotional factors and other types of perception.

HOW TO HAVE THE POWER OF MIND IN YOUR FAVOR

Use the power of the mind to your advantage

The human mind is one of the most incredible places there is. This "box" hides infinite potential, in which we can look for ideas, concepts and plans to achieve them. To learn more about this topic, keep reading this article!

A light mind is much more powerful and aggregating! Since we talked about the power of the mind, I present to you my detoxification program from negative thoughts! Change your life now! Between here! It's free!

Turn dreams into kings and personalities

The first step for something to become real is mental creation. There is nothing we can practice or materialize physically without having it in mind first. Reality is directly connected to the images projected within us. When we are not in control of our thoughts or do not understand how to work our mind, we go through complicated situations or are led into a world that is not ideal.

You may have heard a very common old saying: “will is power”. It seems simple, doesn't it? But if we look at coaching, our results begin the moment the mind works towards what we believe and want to achieve. When we think correctly

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Mind you, we have the power to achieve what we desire.

Tips on how to work the mind correctly

It doesn't help to ask a restless mind for tons of innovative ideas. So, take a look at some tips on how to take care of yourself:

• According to neuroscientist Cori Bargmann, from Rockefeller University in the United States, sleep is essential to keep the brain active and healthy. During sleep, memories are fixed and some toxic proteins are eliminated, which does not happen when we are awake.

Physical exercise is also essential for the proper functioning of the mind.

• Gratitude for learning and results is important. This positive attitude reinforces self-confidence and makes the individual see life in a more uplifting and less pessimistic way.

Positive thinking eliminates stress and anxiety. Supported by him, the central point is never the problem itself, but how to find the best solutions to solve it and move forward.

• According to American psychologist Daniel Goleman, another important element in accessing the power of the mind is focus. For the specialist, it is necessary to maintain internal, external and empathetic concentration to find a balance. To achieve this, Goleman argues that it is necessary to learn to completely disconnect from the environment, as well as see the world with new perspectives and, finally, choose the best ways to relate to people.

If you have other tips you want to share, just write them in the comments!

6 tips to increase your mental power

As mentioned earlier, it doesn't take a great technique or a breakthrough secret for the power of the mind to play on our side. It's small attitudes, a change in behavior and changes in lifestyle that can make a difference. Follow the tips below and harness your mental power:

1. Be positive: Always try to have a positive outlook. Attitudes and pen Positive feelings increase self-esteem and promote the maintenance of physical and mental health. It is useless to want to change the power of the mind in your favor, if the thoughts are bad, negative.

2. Exercise: Exercise is essential for quality health. Your heart and the rest of your body will thank you if you train frequently. The Roman philosopher Juvenal (died in the second century) said "a healthy mind in a healthy body." During physical activities, important areas of the mind are processed, responsible for stimulating memory and creating regenerating cells.

3. Being grateful: By being grateful, you promote positive feelings that promote a feeling of well-being, happiness and reward. Furthermore, being grateful strengthens your purpose and mission in life. Be grateful for your achievements, your family and your friends. And try to exercise this feeling of gratitude whenever possible in the small gestures of the people around you.

4. Sleep well: As mentioned above, research has shown that sleep is essential for proper brain function. Therefore, try to sleep preferably at least 8 hours a night and do your best to relax and rest your body and mind. Just like the physical part, there comes a time when the mind also needs to recharge its batteries.

5. Stay focused: By controlling your ability to concentrate, the power over your mind gradually increases. Knowing the right time to pay attention to a certain topic or just relax and distract yourself helps the brain to balance itself and not become overloaded. Make a list of what is really important and try to follow it so you don't lose focus and work on this fundamental side of the mind.

6. Replace words: You know that words have power, right? So work with them to exercise your mind gradually. A valuable piece of advice is to replace "if" with "when". Whenever you are dealing with a problem or future plan in your life, don't say "if I get the job" but "when I get the job." The "if" provides options and the "when" is centered on an option.

You've seen how different everything can be with simplicity.

do you attitudes in everyday life? Exercise your mind, have positive thoughts and actions, obtain greater mental power and extraordinary results in your life.

Neurolinguistic programming

Have you ever heard of neurolinguistic programming? This science was developed by author Richard Bandler and psychologist John Grinder in the 1970s in the United States. His research showed that human beings have three pillars: neurological processes, language and behavior. Furthermore, scholars say that a person can link these points to achieve a goal.

At the Brazilian Coaching Institute (IBC), there is training that works exactly on this concept called Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP). In addition to deepening the concepts of neurolinguistic programming, the course will help you find your inner self and develop a better version of yourself, without losing your essence. No

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stop there! The training also teaches:

• What is the best way to turn dreams into real goals. A topic very related to what this article is about.

• What it is and how to exercise self-knowledge, personal development, self-esteem and emotional intelligence.

• How to practice non-verbal language.

• What is the alignment of neurological levels.

• What is the structure of thought and how it works.

• How to develop behavioral flexibility.

• What are the representative channels;

• Increase the ability to reflect on a given situation, observing it from more than one angle

• How to negotiate and resolve problems effectively.

• How to manage time and activities productively.

• Best practices for good leadership.

• Development of critical skills.

• How to generate team effort.

• How to expand the ability to communicate with different audiences.

Redefine various situations and facts in your life.

• Maturity of creativity and its application in processes and problem solving.

Did you enjoy the training? So don't wait another minute and browse the website to find out more or contact one of our assistants.

A light mind is much more powerful and aggregating! Since we talked about the power of the mind, I present to you my detoxification program from negative thoughts! Change your life now! Between here! It's free!

If you liked these tips, comment and share the content with your friends. Additionally, here are other ideas to make our mind an ally in the pursuit of success and goals.

WHAT IS YOGA?

If you think yoga is just twisting and moving your body in a weird way, it's time to rethink. Yoga is much more than postures. Derived from the Sanskrit word "yuj", which means "to unite or integrate", yoga is a collection of knowledge dating back more than 5,000 years. Yoga consists of harmonizing the body with the mind and breathing, through breathing techniques (pranayama), yoga positions (asana) and meditation. Watch the video below to learn more about what yoga is:

Yoga for everyone

Yoga is a way of life and if we stop thinking about it, we have been practicing it since we were children! For example, stretching the cat to stretch the spine. Always see children doing some type of yoga during the day.

Yoga works for everyone: people who work in an office, athletes, people trying to lose weight, with an intense or peaceful routine in their daily lives who can have a better quality of life with practice.

Breathing techniques (Pranayama) and meditation

Pranayama is the art of effectively controlling breathing. The practice of

Proper breathing techniques can help bring more oxygen to the blood and brain, helping to control prana or vital energy. Pranayama also follows various yoga asanas.

The union between these two principles of yoga is considered the highest form of purification and self-discipline, which encompasses the mind and body. Prayanamas techniques also prepare us for a deeper meditation experience.

Sri Sri Yoga

At Art of Living, we have a yoga seminar that takes place over 5 days (2 hours per day), combining body, mind and breathing with a joyful experience. A combination of asanas performed delicately and vigorously is taught, as well as other techniques that ensure the well-being of the body and nourish the mind and spirit.

With Sri Sri Yoga's multidimensional routine, which combines yoga postures, breathing techniques, yoga knowledge and meditation, students end up with a complete practice to perform at home. It is aimed at beginners and, at the same time, more advanced professionals. Through the practices taught at the seminar, participants can lose weight and cure chronic illnesses such as insomnia, asthma, diabetes, hypertension and migraines.

Patanjali Yoga Sutra - A unique present yoga class

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's exclusive commentary on this ancient text, the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, will illuminate your knowledge of yoga, its origin and purpose. Immerse yourself in this rich knowledge and learn more about the practice of yoga, described by Patanjali. You can buy the book in our stores.

FRUITS AND THEIR VITAMINS

Fruits are foods that should be included in our menu every day. They are rich in vitamins and provide energy for activities. Each type of fruit is a true health balm, with physical and aesthetic benefits. Some of them have important medicinal powers.

People in general are unable to eat the ideal number of servings of fruit every day, as there is a strong temptation to eat a dessert or chocolate instead of an apple, for example. However, it's important to talk about efforts to prioritize fruits whenever possible.

Check the vitamin profile of each fruit:

Banana: vitamins A, B1, B2 and C

Watermelon: Vitamins B, A and C

Orange: vitamin C.

Lemon: complex of vitamins C and B.

Apple: vitamins B1 and B2

Pineapple:

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amines C, B1 and A

Passion fruit: vitamin complex A, C and B.

Melon: rich in vitamins A, C and B.

Strawberry: rich in vitamin C.

Pear: complex of vitamins A, C and B.

Papaya: complex of vitamins A, C and B.

Avocado: vitamin E.

Grapes: Vitamins B and C

Fruits with antioxidant powers: strawberries, plums, grapes, oranges, apples, bananas, pears and papayas.

Fruits to be included in the weight loss diet: pineapple (low calorie and diuretic); banana (rich in tryptophan, which helps fight anxiety); fig (source of magnesium and diuretic); lemon (fights free radicals and is also a diuretic); mango (high concentrations of potassium and magnesium) and watermelon (diuretic) and peach (very nutritious).

Citrus fruits (with citric acid): rich in vitamins and antioxidants, fight free radicals: orange, lemon, acerola, cashew nuts, pineapple, loquat. Non-acidic and not suitable for heartburn sufferers.

Fruits recommended to combat heartburn: apple, melon, watermelon and banana

VITAMIN CHART

What are they, functions of vitamins, types of vitamins, fruit vitamins, avitaminosis, water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble vitamins, importance, vitamin C and others.

What are vitamins

Vitamins are important nutrients for our body. They are extremely important for the proper functioning of our body, mainly because they help prevent many diseases.

They are not produced by the body and, therefore, must be acquired by ingesting food (fruits, vegetables, meat, etc.). A lack of vitamins can lead to various diseases (avitaminosis).

Vitamins can be of two types: water-soluble (soluble in water and absorbed by the intestine) and fat-soluble (soluble in fat and absorbed by the intestine with the help of bile salts produced by the fig).

Vitamin A

Sources: poultry, animal liver and carrots

Deficiency diseases (avitaminosis): vision problems, dry skin, reduction of red blood cells, formation of kidney stones

Functions in the body: combats free radicals, bone formation, skin; retinal functions

Vitamin D

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Sources: fish oil, liver, egg yolk

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): rickets and osteoporosis

Functions in the body: regulation of calcium in the blood and bones

Vitamin E

Sources: vegetables, olive oil and vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): visual difficulties and neurological changes

Functions in the body: acts as an antioxidant agent.

Vitamin K

Sources: liver and green leafy vegetables, avocado.

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): blood clotting deficiency, bleeding.

Functions in the body: acts on blood clotting, prevents osteoporosis, activates osteo calcin (an important bone protein).

Vitamin B1

Sources: cereals, cured meats, legumes, brewer's yeast

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): beriberi

Functions in the body: acts on the energy metabolism of sugars

Vitamin B2

Sources: milk, meat, vegetables

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): inflammation of the tongue, anemia, seborrhea

Functions in the body: acts on enzyme metabolism, protecting the nervous system.

Vitamin B5

Sources: liver, mushrooms, corn, avocado, eggs, milk, legumes

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): fatigue, muscle cramps, insomnia

Functions in the body: metabolism of proteins, fats and sugars

Vitamin B6

Sources: meats, fruits, vegetables and cereals

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): seborrhea, anemia, growth disorders

Functions in the body: growth, cell protection, fat and protein metabolism, hormone production

B12 vitamin

Sources: liver, meat

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): pernicious anemia

Functions in the body: formation of red blood cells and cell multiplication

Vitamin C

Sources: orange, lemon, pineapple, kiwi, acerola, strawberry, broccoli, melon, mango

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): scurvy

Functions in the body: acts to strengthen the immune system, combats free radicals and increases iron absorption in the intestine.

Vitamin H.

Sources: walnut, almond, chestnut, brewer's yeast, milk, egg yolk, brown rice

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): eczema, exhaustion, muscle pain, dermatitis

Functions in the body: fat metabolism

Vitamin M or B9

Sources: mushrooms, green vegetables

Deficiency diseases (avitaminosis): megaloblastic anemia, neural tube diseases

Functions in the body: amino acid metabolism, formation of red blood cells and nervous tissues

Vitamin PP or B3

Sources: peas, peanuts, beans, fish, kidney beans, liver

Diseases caused by deficiency (avitaminosis): insomnia, headache, dermatitis, diarrhea, depression

Functions in the body: skin maintenance, liver protection, regulates blood cholesterol levels.

COCONUT WATER: ADVANTAGES FOR YOUR HEALTH

Not long ago, nutritionists, nutritionists and all types of professionals involved in the food sector - including me - recommended

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They were moderate in their consumption of coconut water, one of the most popular drinks at the hottest time of year. We were worried that it contains fructose and saturated fat, substances that can make us fat and cause some problems for our health, and because we thought that its benefits did not outweigh its harms.

Coconut water is rich in vitamins, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrates, antioxidants, enzymes and other phytonutrients that help the body function more efficiently.

Coconut water has a combination of substances that make it special, even when compared to drinks. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, amino acids, carbohydrates, antioxidants, enzymes and other phytochemicals.

nutrients that help the body function more efficiently. Its electrolyte content (ionic mineral) similar to human plasma has ensured international recognition as the best oral rehydrate. In other words: a super sports drink incomparable to any other synthetic product for this purpose. It is so compatible with the human body that it can also be injected into a vein, which was quite common during the first and second world wars, as well as the Vietnam war, where a lack of resources meant the military was aware of the situation. coconut water's unique qualities almost by accident. Although this drink's most famous hydrating feature is, the health benefits don't stop there. Coconut water promotes balanced body chemistry, all for the benefit of your health. Reduces blood pressure and the risk of heart disease, prevents atherosclerosis, facilitates kidney functions, protects against various types of cancer, facilitates digestion, controls blood glucose levels, blood circulation, makes the immune system more active, It has anti-aging properties and helps preserve healthy bacteria. For athletes, coconut water is essential in the summer. It acts as a deposit of electrolytes, a substance that protects against cramps and improves physical performance, being more efficient in replacing some nutrients lost in sweat than water itself. Drink coconut water: it's okay!

Super health!

Additional information: Flavored water makes 2 liters seem small

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. The study of this area is multifaceted and includes subfields, such as areas of human development, sport, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.

The word "psychology" derives from the ancient Greek psyche, meaning "mind", and logos, meaning "knowledge or study". Being a science, it tries to investigate the causes of behavior. Consequently, it uses systematic and objective observation, measurement and analysis procedures, supported by theoretical interpretations, generalizations, explanations and predictions.

It seems impossible to study the most complex machine on Earth, which is the human mind. Although we cannot observe the mind directly, everything we do, think, hear and say is determined by how it works.

Psychologists take human behavior as raw data to test their theories of how the mind works. For patients, this means understanding which mental processes are triggering negative reactions in their lives. Therefore, it is possible to work with them to modify these behaviors for a healthier mind. According to the Federal Council of Psychology, today there are just over 310,000 psychologists in the

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Brazil, 90% of which are women.

What is psychology?

In the beginning, there were two dominant theoretical perspectives in its study

The American William James (1842-1910) developed an approach that became known as functionalism. In it, he argued that the mind is constantly changing and it is futile to look for the building blocks of experience. Instead, the focus should be on how and why an organism does something. Finally, it was suggested that psychologists look for the underlying cause of the behavior and mental processes involved. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior has been a major influence on contemporary psychology.

The second perspective was Wilhelm Wundt's structuralism. The term derives from Edward Titchener, an American psychologist trained by Wundt. Structuralism was based on trained introspection. As a result of this research method, subjects reported what was going on in their minds while performing a certain task. This turned out to be an unreliable method because there were many individual variations in the research subjects' experiences and relationships. Despite the failure of introspection, Wundt is an important figure in the story. It was he who opened the first laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879. This opening is generally seen as the beginning of modern psychology.

Wundt was also important in separating this area of ​​philosophy, analyzing the functioning

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that of the mind using more objective and standardized procedures. With its broad scope, psychology investigates a wide variety of phenomena: learning and memory, sensation and perception, motivation and emotion, thought and language, personality and social behavior, intelligence, child development, mental illness, and more.

Where does psychology come from?

Psychology is an entirely new science, with most of the progress made in the last 150 years. However, its origins date back to ancient Greece, between 400 and 500 acc. The emphasis was philosophical, with great thinkers like Socrates influencing Plato, who in turn influenced Aristotle.

During the 17th century, French philosopher René Descartes introduced the idea of ​​dualism. He claimed that mind and body were two entities that interacted to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the related contributions of nature versus nurture, are rooted in these ancient philosophical traditions.

In the mid-19th century, the philosopher Wundt was using scientific research methods to study reaction times. His book was published

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in 1874, Principles of Physiological Psychology. He described many of the major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior.

Furthermore, physiology contributed to the possible emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline. Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on the field. Therefore, they contributed to the application of scientific methodologies in the study of thought and behavior. The arms of psychology

Any attempt to explain why humans think and behave the way they do will be connected to a branch of psychology. The different disciplines are extremely broad. They include:

• Clinical psychology

• Cognitive psychology

• developmental psychology

• Evolutionary psychology

• Forensic Psychology

• health psychology

• Neuropsychology

• work psychology

• Social Psychology

Clinical psychology

This clinical area integrates science, theory and practice to understand, predict and alleviate problems of adaptation, disability and discomfort. Promotes adaptation, adaptation and personal development. A clinical psychologist focuses on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life, across cultures and socioeconomic levels.

Clinical psychology can help us understand, prevent and alleviate psychologically caused suffering or dysfunction and promote an individual's well-being and personal development. Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are fundamental to the practice of clinical psychology. However, clinical psychologists are often involved in research, training, forensic testimony, and other areas.

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language. Analyze how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn. It is closely related to neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. Cognitive psychologists analyze how people acquire, process, and store information. Practical applications include how to improve memory, increase decision-making accuracy, or how to configure it are programs

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educational resources to increase learning.

Developmental psychology

This is the scientific study of the systematic psychological changes a person experiences over a lifetime, often called human development. This focuses not only on babies and young children, but also on teenagers, adults and the elderly. Factors include motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding, language acquisition, emotions, personality, self-concept, and identity formation. Developmental psychology overlaps with fields such as linguistics.

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology examines how human behavior, such as language, has been influenced by psychological adaptations during evolution. An evolutionary psychologist believes that many human psychological traits are adaptive, as they have allowed us to survive for thousands of years.

Forensic Psychology

Forensic study involves the application of psychology to criminal investigations and the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science in the criminal justice system and civil courts. It involves evaluating the psychological factors that may influence a case or behavior and presenting the results to the court.

Health psychology

Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology. See how behavior, biology, and social context affect disease and health.

A doctor usually looks first at the biological causes of a disease. A health psychologist focuses

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It will affect the person as a whole and what affects their health. This may include your socioeconomic status, education and history, and behaviors that may affect the disease, such as following instructions and medications. Health psychologists often work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings.

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology examines the structure and function of the brain in relation to psychological behaviors and processes. Neuropsychology may be involved if the condition involves brain damage and assessments that involve recording electrical activity in the brain.

A neuropsychological assessment is used to determine whether a person is likely to have behavioral problems after a suspected or diagnosed brain injury, such as a stroke. The results may allow a doctor to provide treatment that helps the

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individual to achieve possible improvements in the cognitive impairment that occurred.

Work psychology

In a business context, a psychologist can help increase productivity and employee retention. Occupational or organizational psychologists are involved in evaluating and recommending people's performance at work and in training. They help companies find more effective ways to function and understand how people and groups behave at work. This information can help improve effectiveness, efficiency, job satisfaction and employee retention.

social Psychology

Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand the impact of social influences that influence human behavior. Try to explain how feelings, behaviors and thoughts are influenced by the real, imagined or implied presence of other people.

A social psychologist examines group behavior, social perception, nonverbal behavior, obedience, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and social interaction are considered fundamental to understanding social behavior. Other branches include military, consumer, educational, intercultural, and environmental psychology, and the number of weapons continues to grow.

What all of these approaches have in common is the desire to explain the behavior of individuals based on the functioning of the mind. In all areas, psychologists apply scientific methodology. They formulate theories, test hypotheses through observations and experiments, and analyze the results with statistical techniques that help them identify important findings to help people.

Celebrities who studied psychology

Some celebrities who studied psychology that you probably don't know are. International actress Natalie Portman, national actor Leonardo Miggiorin, presenter Eliana, Facebook creator Mark Zuckerberg, Brazilian presenter Tiago Leifert and the great Brazilian actress Marisa Orth.

What is psychology for?

The mind is extremely complex and conditions related to it can be difficult to manage. Physical signs of some mental health problems, such as plaques that develop with Alzheimer's disease, can be seen.

Therefore, many psychology theories are based on the observation of human behavior.

A clinical psychologist will meet with patients and perform assessments to

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find out what your concerns are. So take note of what is causing some difficulties and recommend or provide treatment. For example, through counseling and psychotherapy. Additionally, psychologists can also have other roles.

• Conduct studies to advise health authorities and other bodies on social strategies.

• Assess children who have difficulty learning at school.

• Organize seminars on how to prevent bullying.

• Working with recruitment teams in companies and much more.

Among the main objectives of psychology are the description, explanation, prediction and improvement of human behavior.

The work of psychologists is varied, but they all share a main goal. This goal is to help people have a better life. Our daily life is profoundly influenced by the way we interpret hundreds of stimuli (positive or negative) that we receive every day. In other words, quality of life occurs when these stimuli are adequately absorbed and intended not to harm our life.

In conclusion, psychologists are experts at understanding the role of these factors in influencing health, happiness, and overall well-being. Getting in touch with psychology helps you better understand the many ways the mind affects your life.

THANKS;

By the quality that I keep repairing life and nature in infinite space, together with a scientific thought and a philosophy of living that leads me to life as a more realistic visionary in every dream step I took, I always found at the end of a tune a vital light and faith

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liz telling me that life, when it makes us dream and feel pleasure, everything becomes real and immortal, our life that never stops.

Which is immortal as the great universe.

I want to first thank God for giving me life and also thank the heavenly entities for giving me the intelligence to search over lives and lives for a place to dream and be a god like perhaps in the old times that man once lived in heaven and became a god.

I want to make it very clear that I created this book as a research center for everyone to understand here in this contest that I apply and show to great science researchers to lead a great discovery for great studies and research in the area of ​​health to build a source of light for all knowledge in the area of ​​biotechnology, chemical functions, biochemistry, chemistry, biology, the human body, quantum physics, physics so that we know where certain cures live which, conveniently, I think it is better to apply a metaphysics to all the various functions that are formalized in the human being in which it reproduces in the cells to pass on to the metabolic process of the organism and that we can carry out all these sciences with a great plenitude of high esteem and general knowledge of

certain works and research in the field of sciences in which we will show with great attention a small demonstration of a fabulous work on the organic functions of the human body that will work together with physics and its elements as a great atomic combination on various organic forms and functions that makes it a great combination and process of vitamins, calcium and mineral salts that work in the bloodstream, passing through and transmuting into the body's cells, which have both an effect on the brain as mental and emotional functions and on the body as a metabolic effect. and development of the vital organism and its movements and vibrational pulsations that came to transmute and transform into an atomic nucleus a great organic transformation that both helped us and left us subject to fearless organic disturbances that in construction and growth everything will be possible as long as it resembles the birth of the world that all began with a great explosion that formed in

atom into the smallest fraction of an element in which all the particles combined and life was formalized, creating the

world as a constant waltz of movements of construction and destruction that thus formalized life and that is how we are in the universe, continually pulsing under large loads of electrons and megatons and I want to talk about the atom that would be the smallest fraction of an element capable of entering in combination, supposedly once, indivisible moment and short space and I want to show here with great care and patience so that everyone can see and understand how life began in which we can treat it using a better surface between science and much more applied technologies that I will tell metaphysically about various scientific aspects in which we can see and transform the cure for the disease as the disease as a procedure through the study in which we infiltrate the logic of maturity against all illnesses that derail our organism into a side and destructive effect that we will understand here now and take a walk on a grand relativity that requires diverse laws and contradiction to aid organic development over a

more effective treatment.

DNA extraction basically includes two main procedures: lysis of the cells present in the sample and purification

of DNA. After cell lysis, DNA must be separated from cellular debris and proteins, precipitated and suspended in

appropriate volume of ultrapure water or suitable buffer solutions, we can enter the functions as a combination

chemicals that make us contribute to the development and behavior of substances that we can classify in

atomic nucleus on various functions of certain elements such as air, water, earth and fire that make up the human body in which we classify on a large chemical function that is a grouping of substances that have properties

similar. These properties are called functional, as they determine the behavior of both solid and liquid substances and we must study some chemical components of cells such as water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) as well as its atomic weight and the oxygen and hydrogen found in air, water, earth and fire that

we can transform into nuclear energy and transform into organic substance that are absorbed and disseminated over electron outlets and centrifuges as the energy of the spirit which is nuclear chemistry about the speed of centripetals and centrifuges that involves the spirit and makes the entire process about the organism that creates cells and we can distinguish and extract its DNA to store and know all the characteristics

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characteristics of an individual as thought and feeling that on the planes of the soul we conceptualize the subtle energy of transforming and creating various aspects of both the soul and matter in which the spirit as nuclear chemistry has this effect on the magnetic and electrical resonance of the spirit that becomes in soul and projects itself into matter and we can show that nature would be a more static thing

as for the universe that proliferates us as for the branch of mechanics that investigates the properties of bodies that are in balance when under the action of forces or torques that we can see everything from a large and fabulous dimension that here I want to tell you that we should look at the life with a bigger and stronger aspect that would be better because it would put us in a metamorphosis relative to all things created and that develop from nature as electricity and magnetism can classify themselves in terms of healing us at the pace of a work of both a construction of a radio, TV and computer that we see his creativity and certain elements combine in a more constructive and reactive formality to all forms and existences that contain life and give us life as we can classify both solid and liquid substances passing to the material side that forms an atomic nucleus and moving on to the spiritual side as time and space that we can classify that things can be dense and neutral to the state of matter and we focus on all relativities as life in which functions are always transformed into living bodies as the organism multiplies on the metabolic development of the organism and we must prescribe all the growth cells that give us life and formation both internally and externally and we will classify the relativities and functions that in everything and for everything we must look better and deal with the system as it is done on computers as on other electronics and we pass these fluids, both positive and negative, into a nuclear construction that tomorrow will keep us more alive in the face of life and I don't want to invent stories because I am a scientist and I try to build sciences based on all formalities and relativities of life and we can better preserve ourselves when we learn to think and build something related to life. I want to thank you very much for this satisfaction and wish all the great scientists who

enjoy this discovery and try to create the best about the function system in relation to life and thank you very much!

A kiss and a big hug from the writer: Roberto Barros.

Per; Roberto Barros