EVERY STORY IN THE WORLD TOLD BY ROBERTO BARROS
I want for a great abbreviation of my secular thoughts and understandings to speak here about how it all perhaps began that from my words I will show how the world originated involving countless civilizations between races and their events leaving our planet as a true atlas of fearless stories that have changed the world and our lives with its creation, evolution, social imbalances until the awakening of our lives, everything being a fact that occurred and narrated by me as a complete study that involves all my sociology, physics, psychology, philosophy and science to the most setbacks real and fundamental of all existence.
1948 (MCMXLVIII, in Roman numerals) was a leap year in the 20th century that began on a Thursday, according to the Gregorian calendar. His Sunday lyrics were DC. Carnival Tuesday took place on February 10th and Easter Sunday on March 28th. According to the Chinese horoscope, it was the year of the Rat, starting February 10th and in science certain names were established that stood out about the best construction and creation of certain theories that marked a good time as certain men like Dennis Gabor, Nobel Prize in Physics , conceived the holography. Short - mechanical calculator invented by Curt Herzstark , Claude Shannon: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in Information theory. Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson : Quantum Electrodynamics among many others who have always contributed to science in an emanation of certain creations and discoveries that would mark the history of the world in which everything was a long study. consecrated as a theory about life and the beginning of the universe and how it all originated in 1948, the Russian scientist naturalized American, George Gamow discovered through a large study that perhaps the history of our life has another more than demonstrable role in which we show the The Big Bang theory was announced in 1948 by the American- born Russian scientist, George Gamow (1904-1968) and the Belgian priest and astronomer Georges Lemaître (1894-1966). According to them, the universe would have emerged after a great cosmic explosion, between 10 and 20 billion years ago. The search for understanding how the process that gave rise to the current universe was triggered, provided – and still provides – several debates, researches and theories that can explain this phenomenon. It is a topic that arouses great curiosity in humans since the most remote times and generates great controversies, involving religious, philosophical and scientific concepts.
So far, the most accepted explanation of the origin of the universe among the scientific community is based on the Big Bang theory . It relies, in part, on the theory of relativity of physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and on the studies of astronomers Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) and Milton Humason (1891-1972), who demonstrated that the universe is not static and constantly expanding, that is, the galaxies are moving away from each other. Therefore, in the past they should have been closer than they are today, and even forming a single point.
The Big Bang theory was announced in 1948 by the American- born Russian scientist, George Gamow (1904-1968) and the Belgian priest and astronomer Georges Lemaître (1894-1966). According to them, the universe would have emerged after a great cosmic explosion, between 10 and 20 billion years ago. The term explosion refers to a great release of energy, creating spacetime.
Until then, there was a mixture of subatomic particles ( qharks , electrons, neutrinos and their particles) that moved in all directions at speeds close to that of light. The first heavy particles, protons and neutrons, joined together to form the nuclei of light atoms, such as hydrogen, helium and lithium, which are among the main chemical elements in the universe.
As it expanded, the universe also cooled, turning from violet to yellow, then orange and red. About 1 million years after the initial moment, matter and light radiation separated and the Universe became transparent: with the union of electrons and atomic nuclei, light can walk freely. About 1 billion years after the Big Bang , chemical elements began to unite giving rise to galaxies.
This is the systematic explanation of the origin of the universe, according to the Big Bang theory . Accepted by most scientists, however, much contested by some researchers. Therefore, the origin of the universe is a topic that generates many divergent opinions, requiring a critical analysis of each aspect that can explain this event. Perhaps we can versify this story as a real fact, that is, perhaps a deep thought in which everything can be proven between several and variable nuclear and atomic transformations in which the world may have originated even from a great explosion than in the other version of the The bible tells us about the genes as something more common that God created the world on another dimension and history as well as a Christian teaching in which God created paradise and made Adam and Eve who ate from the tree of life and committed a sin in which God expelled Adam and Eve of paradise staying like a biblical tale that maybe we can understand more about the life we must seriously restrain ourselves and yes we will remain more related to so many imaginations of the man who discovered the science that tells us about the Big Bang theory and the genes as God created the world and we'll go back around everything back as an introit to life in which we can believe in his creation which is also on the various civilizations he conquered they took life and the world and left great marks of their relationships on earth and let's start with a period of time in which we should perhaps necessarily look for more facts, real evidence of any existences that founded life on earth and let's not describe meaningless things because we can still be distracted and let's first think about a more analytical theory, expressing to our understanding that maybe we are still thinking about several ideas and discoveries that we could by a synthesis show their reasons and relativities of life that rests on a deep philosophical study and well built that implies life and its relationship with God and the universe that perhaps could have been born of a great explosion or have been born and created by the hands of God as first the scriptures tell us about the genes and how the world originated and by a great interpretation of my ideas I want to show something concerning both the creation of God that represents the bright side of life as well as the good and talking about the devil as a representation of the dark side of life that represents the bad, counting on a psychological notion that unfolds on a great philosophy of man in a relative principle that I explain that everything can be based on a physics that messes with a theory more related to theosophy which teaches us the presumed mysteries of life and nature, of divinity and the origin and purpose of the universe.
I simply mean that life is sister to death as death is sister to life that there is probably a construction term that we are simply walking down a path that we should look for real evidence about the existence of life on mortals than in the most thinkable way of building, construction and evolution of the human being who has undergone a metamorphosis that effectively would be the opposite of dies on a fatality we see the life being distracted on a context presenciarmos its existence and affection go through a more different side casually seek certainties over the uncertainties that naturally must ave a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total disaffection that we call the round trip time that is written in the bible that God created the sky and the sea and men built a a very fine source on his relationships with life that has always emanated from us in a context of revealing and showing us the realities of day by day that for a mismatch of time and two days everything becomes the target of a circumstances of love and hate where man can understand and understand his needs for evolution and origin that completed him ten from the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and as the holy bible says and they committed a perdition by eating from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized on a metamorphosis in which man is a god as from the beginning the gods built the mount olympus and that made human beings understand about their desires and thoughts what life and death should be like as a dream of entry and exit in which the world would find itself possessed of pleasure and will and everyone would enjoy all the needs that life and its relativities if a domain was established between human beings and animals that effectively in everything and for everything would stop at their capabilities, rations, complicity, understandings and actions in which man could establish a conduct or doctrine between tribes and bands that made the world and learned what life taught them and understood about death and life that simply should establish a logic of remaining intact about their more than probable natures, uncertainties more than expendable with the formalized being in primate man between a duel with dinosaurs until the contemporary age that would establish a stronger identity the deconstructions and constructions of life, leaving the earth as an emanation that creates a phenomenal existence of the living being that became man and woman and animals were preserved over all the modalities that supposedly perhaps also man may have come from the ape as primitive man and that the world originated from a great explosion caused by an asteroid in which it destroyed the face of the earth and everything started from nothing as it is also said that the world originated from a great explosion in which the universe was densely hot and that everything was formalized from the sides. Tiles in atoms in which life was formed on earth establishing human and animal beings in which the word of God originates as an emanation of facts that occurred from a link that we can simply say that we were built and formalized on an alchemy more focused on an absinthe as an essence would have taken the form of a serpent while the world was improved within a natural harmonization of nature between four constructive elements that emanate life in air, water, earth and fire in which their geniuses can formalize us about an atom and logic in which matter would be part in everything and in all of a smaller fraction of an element whose atomic particles would or would be in a small interval of time that would form in an atomic body called an atom between time and space becoming the universe more between spaces leaving everything and creating everything about an escape route in which planetary life originated and its exit and entrance artifices as creation and destruction in which god would be a homogeneous factor of the universe and omnipotent of all things that were created under a context of construction and destruction god being between various questions of clairvoyance between life as a light, as emanation of life and hate as destruction of death also known as the devil who represents the flames, the eternal fire of god emanating from the devil who is the god himself in the form of light representing the life that supposedly never disappeared and always resurrected above all things of paradise that would be a Going place of all souls where we formalize ourselves as heaven and hell would be the dark side of life that would symbolize the devil in which he would take the lamas to purgatory as a penalty and mortal sin on life and death and the world not another conduct would be established, but heaven and hell would represent life and death between a single god, just as there was only one god and the devil between them, which in two forms would be established as the world also originated as a great explosion giving exit and entry of escapes as everything was formed and formalized leaving the earth a place to live and die in which the two spheres are more showing us that the greater sin and not believing in God and salvation would be to believe in God the Father Almighty Creator of heaven and earth in which life has always revealed its mysteries among both the depths of heaven and earth that always rebelled us about various purposes of light and darkness, leaving life something superlative about a prodigal nature that has always formalized us by its existence and subsistence in which they are known as good and evil becoming everything in light and darkness, life being something simply like a circle in which we can live and die as construction and destruction of life in cause of death that is dark, cold as in life would be more subtle because it is light, white, hot getting all about an alchemy of a phenomenal existence in which we symbolize their c apacity , complicity and construction in an emanation of time and space in which the universe can perhaps always expand on its vibrational and pulsating flows and it expands itself because it is subtle and destroys itself because it is always dense over an atmosphere warmer than the earth forming in everything and for all a forgotten space in which the hours, minutes and seconds are totaled in a smaller fraction of time forming into atoms and always giving more spatiality to its size and I want to say that life is sister to death like the death be sister of life that there is probably a construction term that we are simply following a path that we should seek real evidence about the existence of life on mortals that in the most thinkable way of building, construction and evolution the human being went through a metamorphosis that it would effectively be the opposite of dying on a fatality that we see life distracted in a context of witnessing its existence and affection of father. ssing on a more different side that casually search for certainties about the uncertainties that naturally must ave a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total disaffection that we call a round trip time in which we can certainly live and prevail certainly the real life.
And I want for a simple notion to witness everything that God made as perhaps a fabulous construction calendar and that everything can be contained in a magic circle in which everyone has always followed as a source, circuit or energy, world and that we can find the paradise of the bankrupt and embarrassed and everything is on a context in which everything that God created he also made to it about its relevance, pulsations and extensions in which we cannot doubt the hidden aspects and that everything and everything will always stay in his image as God has always done and created you because it was God who made you.
We see a set of words that are above a term that in my philosophy everything that God create with love is built with a feeling about the living nature of a being that would be more dose to you to understand him because in him everything is clearer as the sunlight that is showing us on the bright side of life the beautiful things that we cling that we simply don't touch by being made of love that is over any emptiness that breaks over the human inability to be happy or love someone in life who simply is not being enlightened before God because they are relapsed of a divine nature that cannot resemble the true being that God made and created over all things in paradise that we could not delude you with the negative uncertainties that insulate life before the soft light of God that is on all things deep and at altitudes that we will someday be able to understand their space and time on our realities that are not so extensive when there is no light from our spirits. timums that are about any high feelings to life that we could not have understood your love and existence in our lives because in everything God did, created the paradise of the bankrupt and the embarrassed who perverted from the evil on the truth that cannot be silent, invisible about everything what God created on the land of obstinate and uncertain men of controversial compassions over an unfaithful desire that perhaps a child would bring would humanely this love for being more alive on the electricity that comforts our thoughts and makes us believe that the world is perfect and that we can still be happy and that perhaps we will remain constructively intact on the pretexts of God who made us enlightened by the fury of the teacher love that loves us and makes us love what is good to see and feel pleasure because life would simply be a sounding board where its rhythm can melody us over all the positive forms and forces of life that never bend over the shadows that break by behind the daylight trying to forget the fear of darkness plaguing the innocent who are yet to know the world as it is beautiful and perfect because God made you about all aspects that have not been destroyed and that it is quite true loves that were not absorbed by god or any anonymity that might have been prescribed by the word of god as they say that angels are more careful to stay alive and anatom for transforming the existence of god over mortals who are consumed by madness, farce, emotional illusion that wrath the minds of men who have not yet understood to simplify their love of life how to love god above all things that are inevitable and together we can always unite because it was god who made you and the stars of heaven as perhaps a wrath that some day we can thank you and ask you for the favor of being faithful to you like a straight arrow without deviation that cannot be of our nature unsatisfactory to the world that can become an illusion to the most weak without love that maybe can feel that they were made from the flower of paradise that unforgettably we will always find what we are looking for because we simply learn to love and hate to consolidate on all aspects of being happy for many years that life becomes pulsating and creating certain devices that someday we will understand their pleasures and everything that God created because we are children of God and we experience the light of life in our eyes and countenances that show us how beautiful we are and become empowered in our memory that we witness our love of life as we pacify in the material planes, the seeds that we simply keep in the soul of our thoughts that are completed on the forms and achievements that we reach in life as a state of time on occasion of graces that we learn to value the life that plagues us with the follies of youth and we see that everything God created was perfect because we likeness of God and my philosophy simply want to d to say that if it was God who made us, we are innate or homogeneous that through the anonymity of the hidden affections we could complete ourselves on his love that he made us because we would not be alive to be happy about some inferior indifference of his nature that remains for as long without an unfavorable expression to the the only affection that made us bigger about all that we are likeness of love that maybe we can't say from the inside out in a few more that it is simplified in the divine theory that everything that God created was with love and we learn with life less or more with its artifacts to value what God has done because we would not be so small and big in the hand of God who completed us on his image and love that can never be small on all the hidden affections that derail the pure realistic compassion of living, loving and being happy because in a few years or maybe millennia from the depths of our souls that we will someday find ourselves free from hell in paradise.
It would be life and death certainly sisters of a contradiction in which we simplify in everything that life formalizes us, maybe in everything there can be deaths as there is life in everything there is also life and also death that we simply mean that the world was created of construction in representation of good with light, love and life as well as the world was destroyed of deconstruction in representation of evil with dark, hate and death, leaving life and death as a back and forth setback of an emanation in which god can be contained and yes they would be indivisible between the two terms classified as life and death as well as an explanation of life and death would be logical, leaving a term life and death and love and hate more sufficient.
Everything is in perfect union and in everything the existence does not stop with its rhythm that makes us say that we are alive today and maybe tomorrow we will die from something generated by the fate of death that in life does not stop to madden many people from different places in one sum of points that life will not connect for the same sum of points that life has to create, everything being in a natural equality in which we take our commitments with the realities of life and we will not fear the negative death that wanders and messes up everything in the a life in which God I create in a sovereign equality from one day everything joins the same dust to again and again begin with everything else life.
Whether you are poor or rich, we will not differentiate between this issue that we should be aware of and if we take care of a mission of peace, health and love for our neighbor that you accompany every second of life every day as we also accompany and learn to preserve the our lives and yes we will be and we will always be alive with our families, relatives and friends who love us how much we love and we will feel your passage to infinity when your time comes and we will give our charities and love for your trip to paradise, whatever. this paradise, heaven or hell, and may God protect it from every evil amen.
Life with its vital white color shows us a paradise full of love and health in which we laugh and cry with joy and learn to love and hate, everything for a sentimental sense of our lives and death with its matte black color show us a dark place where you go to the other side of life and we could even meet and it's all about the measurement of the boundary where heaven and hell meet and maybe someday we can meet and be happy together somewhere and talk about the past and that the memories that stay in our minds and we will want to fulfill some fantasy even if they were past and we can meet and fulfill there in a matter of love and friendship.
I know it's too difficult to understand life and death because they are sisters and have an inequality in one contour in life to persist with their rhythms among human beings and always leave us curious and awestruck by their changes in our ways that they are. short or long to someday wash the soul and forgiveness of our mistakes until the arrival of the angels to God in heavenly paradise and that we are all prepared.
I just don't believe in death because I don't think anything in this world dies because it's just a start to another life where we can say we're free and we don't have any imperfections in our lives and that life will show us better how we are out of ours. world and we could be even better by the way we identify with our souls and everything will be in perfect harmony and the fear of death will no longer exist and we will not feel any imperfection unlike death which will simply be life. In the same way the pulsating universe is always giving lives and at the same time destroyed all of them in a smaller fraction of the best atom and together we can think that one day our existence will not be lost and we will be lords of an immortal time and that we will always remain we live by this on a supernatural plane and we can clearly say that we can make life a combination of things that maybe we couldn't here and we are totally free.
I love life as much as life loves me and is always in perfect harmony with me and paradise may someday be our homes and we will live an eternal life and we will be able to complete our understandings that can lead us to the heavens or the universe!
It is as you say that in life there are two existing factors that rubify us by the benign and malignant force that nature proposes to us and establishes us by a similarity to the impulses created by a given existence as a setback of light and darkness that needs us and makes us suffering in everything in life for an unbalanced inequality of life that afflicts man in his state both conscious and unconscious that in mere circumstances his will, desire, love and hate does not have affective normalities of moral character and personal conduct that is a mental corporation about its emotional effects that make you live according to your life or delicate human nature that always seeks an answer in the passage of time when everything stays for a fraction of a second for the hard occasion of fates that compromises us from factors out of step with the hard and real reality of our lives.
In a great perspective, it is said that love is found as a key to relationships for well-being that, because of a friendlier nature, completes us and makes us understand how much we are friends and everyone is perfect for an equality of good that is present in a a beneficent circle that will show us how much we will always have and will always prosper for an evolutionary and future discipline at a pace that we will never forget our values and compassion for our lives that are always narrowing by false human ties created by a precarious and suffering society with the bad attributes related to life that make us perish and suffer misery, failure and madness to the unnecessary fact of good and evil that are two debatable factors that lean on vast occasion and personal relationships that make us react in a mind that already born empowered and exhausted by the negative darkness of life against the positive light of life which is the good of love transferred by fantasies and illusions materials experienced in the full life of a being who feels and keeps in his mind all the personal and moral fraternity of a world characterized by good and evil that we call love and hate that brings us both happiness and the emotional hell itself effected by relationships and projections of life which is the subsistence of the light which means love for the neighbor and death which is the subsistence of the dark which means hate for the neighbor which, in everything and with everything, revolves through a formality of life both on earth and in the universe in a pulsation of construction and destruction that in the end will create a moral purpose that will serve our souls both on earth and in heaven as an emotional and vibrational processor of all circumstances generated and created by all occasions of life in a positive and negative process that in everything and with everything, love transformed into hate for the good that they feel because they always love so much will be represented, representing hate transformed into love for the evil that also They felt for always hating because they love so much, representing love transformed into hate for the good that they never failed to understand and never to understand the true case and chance of their own nature and existence and non-existence that completes life between two comparable and incomparable desires that you call distanced themselves by a basis and relationship of nature both on earth and in the sky that in science there are no limits at all there is science for everything that has always shown us the most complex true identity of a mismatched infinity of a great understanding of built and built reaction reaction destroyed by a full evolutionary reality of life as a daily route to both lower and higher plexuses that have always been joined into one to give the best suggestion and way of life of a human being.
In the masculine noun, love means strong affection for another person, born of blood ties or social relations. Attraction based on sexual desire. In the masculine noun hate means intense aversion to ger. motivated by fear, anger or injury suffered; hatefulness. The hated person or thing.
There are also heaven and hell which in religiosity are two representations of two spiritual paths and planes that represent the clear side of life that is good in accordance with divine love or personal good intention, which comes from within oneself as well as there is the dark side of life which is evil in accordance with demonic hatred or bad personal intent rather that comes from within oneself as a negative repulsion of life that would go nowhere by the mere circumstance of life by weakening itself to failure sudden in life clearly differentiated from the good intention clear in life which is the good that distorts the dark side of life and when you do not have this issue the dark path of evil is hate causing in itself its own death simplified the very end as mental laws and logical questions of life.
There are paths that reveal to us a multitude of moral concepts that in resuming life we can benefit body and soul through a constructive infinity that reminds us that we are spiritual beings who suffer these subtle energy discharges from our souls due to out of step factors that lead us at the end more prone to react against the harsh and severe realities of life that oppress our nerves and bring down our fundamental consciences in a logical contraction and poorly reconstructed by various emotional declines that make us prejudiced towards the social well-being that provides us to see , live and understand the struggle for survival of this well-informed or poorly constructed between a mental plane of an emotional nature and a prejudiced world in which we live and learn to live and understand the best issue of love and hate that are in two perfect combinations that make it impossible for us to see the bright side that is the good of life and the dark side that is ol I suffer from the evil of life in a fraternity out of step with a feeling overwhelmed by the circumstances generated by life itself, being in everything and with everything subject to love and hate.
Life is a very broad concept and admits of different definitions. It can refer to the ongoing process of which living beings are a part; to the time span between the conception and death of an organism to the condition of an entity that has been born and has not yet died; and what makes a being alive. Metaphysically, life is an ongoing process of relationships. As simple as it may seem, it is still very difficult for scientists to define life clearly. Many philosophers try to define it as a "phenomenon that animates matter". Generally speaking, an entity is traditionally considered to be a living being if it exhibits all of the following phenomena at least once during its existence, Development: passing through several distinct and sequential stages, ranging from conception to death.
1. Growth: absorption and cumulative reorganization of matter from the environment; with excretion of excess and "unwanted" products.
2. Movement: in an internal environment (cellular dynamics), accompanied or not by locomotion in the environment.
3. Reproduction: ability to generate an entity similar to itself.
4. Response to stimuli: ability to "feel" and assess the properties of the environment and to act selectively in response to possible changes in such conditions.
5. Evolution: capacity of successive generations to gradually transform and adapt to their environment.
These criteria are useful, but their disparate nature makes them unsatisfactory from more than one perspective; in fact, it is not difficult to find counterexamples as well as examples that require further elaboration. For example, according to the aforementioned criteria, it could be said that fire has life.
Such a situation could easily be remedied by adding the spatial limitation requirement, that is, the presence of some mechanism that limits the spatial extent of the living being , such as the cell membrane in typical living beings. Such an approach solves the case of fire, however it additionally leads to new problems such as defining the individual in organisms such as most fungi and certain herbaceous plants, and does not definitively solve the problem, as it could still be said that:
• the stars have life, for reasons still similar to fire.
• the geodes could also be considered living beings.
• Viruses and the like are not living beings because they do not grow and cannot reproduce outside the host cell; extendable case to many external parasites.
If we limit ourselves to "conventional" bodies, some additional criteria could be considered in search of a more precise definition:
1. Presence of molecular components such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
2. Composition by one or more cells.
3. Maintenance of homeostasis.
4. Ability to speciate.
However, even in these cases, some impasses would still be detected . For example , all life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, called organic chemistry. Some hold that this must be the case for all possible life forms in the universe; others describe this position as carbon chauvinism, considering, for example, the possibility of life based on silicon.
More definitions
Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana's definition of "life" (widely used by Lynn Margulis ) is an autopoietic (self-generating) water-based system, lipoprotein limits, carbon metabolism, replication through nucleic acids, and protein regulation , a system of lower negative returns subordinated to a higher positive return. Stuart Kauffman defines it as an autonomous agent or system of agents capable of reproducing and completing at least one cycle of thermodynamic work.
Robert Pirsig's definition can be found in his book Lila: An Inquiry into Morals , as anything that maximizes its range of future possibilities, that is, anything that makes decisions that result in a greater number of possible futures, or that maintains the greatest number of open options.
Biochemists have defined life as a set of molecules that, in their mutual interactions, develop a self - regulating program whose end result is the perpetuation of the same collection of molecules. A dynamic balance that, by exchanging matter and energy with the environment, allows the reduction of entropy. There are possibly more possibilities for defining life, since it can be conceptualized based on the meaning attributed to "living".
Modified offspring: a useful feature
A useful feature on which to base a definition of life is that of modified offspring: the ability of a given life form to generate offspring similar to its parents, but with the possibility of some variation due to chance.
Modified offspring is in itself sufficient to allow for evolution, since variation between offspring confers different probabilities of survival. The study of this form of heredity as verified in nature is called genetics. In all known life forms excluded and the prisons , which are not considered living beings, but including viruses and viroids , of still uncertain classification - the genetic material consists mainly of DNA or the other common nucleic acid, RNA.
A criticism of this criterion arises when considering the code of certain forms of viruses and computer programs structured through genetic programming: the question of whether computer programs can be considered living beings, given this definition, is certainly a controversial issue.
Exceptions to the common definition
Many organisms are unable to reproduce and yet are living beings, like mules and worker ants. However, these exceptions can be taken into account by applying the definition of life at the species or individual gene level. However, new questions to this approach are unavoidable when considering specific themes such as kin selection , which provides additional information about the possibility that non-reproductive individuals can still increase the dispersion of their genes and the survival of their strain.
As for the two cases of fire and stars fitting the definition of life, both can be easily remedied by defining metabolism in a more biochemically precise way. In their book Fundamentals of Biochemistry , Donald and Judith Voet define metabolism as follows:
"Metabolism is the overall process through which living systems acquire and utilize the free energy they need to perform their various functions. They do this by combining the exoérgicas reactions of nutrient oxidation processes endoérgicos necessary to maintain the living state, such as the performance of mechanical work, the active transport of molecules against concentration gradients, and the biosynthesis of complex molecules."
This definition, used by most biochemists, makes it clear that fire is not alive, as it releases all the oxidative energy from its fuel in an "explosive" reaction in the form of heat.
Viruses reproduce, flames grow, machines move, some computer programs mutate, evolve and, in the future, will likely exhibit highly complex behaviors; however, they are not living beings via such a definition. On the other hand, at the origin of life, cells with metabolism without a reproductive system may well have existed. Most, however, do not consider these entities to be living beings either, and generally all five characteristics must be present for a being to be considered alive.
modern biological definition
Given this impasse, given the most current definition and apart from the proposals not factually corroborated, it is certain that it is known that, biologically, life is a natural phenomenon that can be described as a continuous process of metabolic chemical reactions taking place in an evolutionarily structured environment of in order to make the occurrence and maintenance of such reactions favorable; which are always made under the direct or indirect control of a group of special molecules, the deoxyribonucleic acids, or simply DNA.
The presence of DNA or, in an "equivalent" way, RNA, is currently a necessary condition for the definition of a living being, however, it is still debated whether the presence of a potentially functional form of this molecule is or is not a sufficient condition to define it. The classification of viruses as living or not is still uncertain.
Life in the religious context
The concept of life is notorious enough not to go unnoticed by religious people. It is based on the principle of life or the existence of the soul (in Christian belief, being exclusive to humans); in animate existence (from the Latin term anima) in the case; or in the duration of the animate existence of an individual or entity.
From a Christian perspective, in this case the biblical one, as for terrestrial, physical life, things that have life, in general, have the capacity for growth, metabolism, reaction to external stimuli, and reproduction. The Hebrew word used in the Bible and the Greek word, The Hebrew word and the Greek term meaning "soul," are also used to refer to life, not in an abstract sense, but to life as a person or animal. Compare the words "soul" and "life" as used in the Book of Job, chapter 10, verse 1 ; Book of Psalms, chapter 66, verse 9; Book of Proverbs, chapter 3, verse 22. According to the Bible, vegetation has life, operating in it the principle of life, but not life as a soul. Life in the fullest sense, as applied to intelligent beings, is perfect existence entitled to a soul. The concept within the religious faith, however, transcends modern science and biology, and there is no modern scientific support that corroborates the existence of a soul. Animism has long been ruled out by science in the case.
Origin of life
The origin of life raises scientific, religious and philosophical questions.
There is still no consensual model for the origin of life, but most currently accepted models are based in one way or another on the following findings:
1. Conditions pre -bióticas plausible result in the creation of simple organic molecules, as shown by experience Urey -Miller.
2. Phospholipids spontaneously form bilayers, the basic structure of the cell membrane.
3. Processes for the random production of RNA molecules can produce ribozymes capable of replicating under certain conditions.
4. The tree of life converges all known living beings into a single point of common ancestry.
There are many different hypotheses regarding the path taken from simple organic molecules to protocells and metabolism. Most possibilities tend either to the primacy of genes or to the primacy of metabolism; a recent trend is to look for hybrid models that combine aspects of both approaches.
According to astronomer and astrophysicist Thomas Gold, the Deep Hot Biosphere Theory indicates that there is strong evidence that microbial life is extremely pervasive deep in the Earth's crust. Consistent with such a theory, life has been identified at various locations in the deep ocean, linked to primordial gas emanations. This life is not dependent on solar energy and photosynthesis as its main source of energy supply, and is essentially independent of the circumstances of the earth's surface. Its energy supply comes from chemical sources, due to fluids that ascend from deeper levels on Earth. Single-celled beings living in such environments are now classified in a super-realm of their own, the Archaea , and may very well keep within themselves the mechanisms that gave rise to the first living beings.
According to theory, in mass and volume this deep biosphere can be compared to all surface life. Such microbial life could, in principle, explain the presence of biological molecules in all carbonaceous materials in the crust, and considering that these materials are entirely from biological deposits accumulated on the surface would not , therefore, necessarily be valid.
Life as it is known could be hypothetically generalized also inside planetary bodies of our Solar System or even in isolated objects wandering in interstellar space; since many of them have conditions as adequate for this to occur as those found in certain situations here on earth, although they still constitute totally inhospitable environments on their surfaces for almost all living beings. One can even speculate that the only alternative is for life to be widely distributed in the universe, inhabiting from planetary bodies in our solar system to other star systems. It is known today that our periodic table is responsible for describing the entire chemistry of the universe.
Life as we know it is based on carbon and water, and energy is usually obtained via the presence of oxygen, whether this is free in the air or being released through the reduction of compounds such as oxides, sulfates, and others. Carbon sources are related to primordial hydrocarbons, mainly methane. Such primordial substances are widely distributed in the universe, and to think that the processes that originated them occurred only here on Earth is for many, in these terms, to say the least, a lot of pretension. An extension of this argument brings us to the panspermia hypothesis.
Speculation aside, the fact remains, however, that life as known almost certainly arose and certainly did evolve on Earth. According to physicist Marcelo Gleiser in his book "Criação Imperfeita", life would have appeared on Earth about 4 billion years ago. The earliest fossil records of life date back to stromatolites formed in the Paleo - Archaean era of the Archean eon , some 3.430 billion years ago.
Nature, in its broadest sense, is equivalent to the "natural world" or "physical universe." The term "nature" refers to phenomena in the physical world as well as life in general. It generally does not include man-made objects.
The word "nature" comes from the Latin word natura, which means "essential quality, innate disposition, the course of things and the universe itself". Natura is the Latin translation of the Greek word physis , which in its original meaning referred to the innate form that plants and animals grow spontaneously. The concept of nature as a whole—the physical universe—is a more recent concept that has gained increasing use with the development of the modern scientific method in recent centuries. Within the various current uses of this word, "nature" can refer to the general domain of different types of living beings, such as plants and animals, and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects - the way in which the different particular types of objects exist. things and their spontaneous changes, as well as the weather, the geology of the Earth and the matter and energy these beings possess. It is often taken to mean "natural surroundings": wild animals, rocks, woods, beaches, and in general anything that has not been substantially altered by humans, or persists despite human intervention. This more traditional concept of natural things implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial, the latter understood as something done by a mind or a conscience.
Etymology
Latin, natura, comp. by the natus theme , p.pass . de natale = to be born and urus = suffix of the future participle of oritur = to arise, to generate, the force that generates.
That which arises, which is given by birth. That which is and does by birth according to universal laws applied to a precise context. Order or system of laws that precede the existence of things and the succession of beings. The set of all beings that make up the universe. Essence and inherent quality of a being. Also understood as the "quality, disposition, genius, type, character" of a being.
Life
a paw with its cubs
Although there is no universal consensus on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by the following factors or functions: organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction, Living beings (plant kingdoms , animals, fungi, protists, archaea and bacteria) have these properties in common: they are made up of cells have a complex organization based on water and carbon metabolism and have the ability to grow, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. Therefore, an entity that satisfies these properties is considered to be alive.
The biosphere is the part of the outermost layer of planet Earth, including air, earth, surface rocks and water, and it is in this part where life evolved, and where they are made and transform biotic processes. From a very broad view of geophysics, the biosphere is the global ecological system that integrates all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air). Currently, it is estimated that the Earth contains about 75 billion tons (7.5 kg x 1013) of biomass, which is present in various environments within the biosphere. About nine-tenths of the Earth's total biomass is plant life, on which animal life depends for survival. To date, over 2 million species of plants and animals have been identified , and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from a few million to as much as 50 million species. The number of existing species varies constantly, as new ones appear and others cease to exist in a continuous dynamic. Currently, the total number of species is undergoing rapid decline.
I simply mean that life is sister to death as death is sister to life that there is probably a construction term that we are simply walking down a path that we should look for real evidence about the existence of life on mortals than in the most thinkable way of building, construction and evolution of the human being who has undergone a metamorphosis that effectively would be the opposite of dies on a fatality we see the life being distracted on a context presenciarmos its existence and affection go through a more different side casually seek certainties over the uncertainties that naturally must ave a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total disaffection that we call the round trip time that is written in the bible that God created the sky and the sea and men built a a very fine source on his relationship with life that has always emanated from us in a context of revealing and showing us the realities of day by day that for a mismatch of time and two days everything becomes the target of a circumstances of love and hate where man can understand and understand his needs for evolution and origin that completed him ten from the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and as the holy bible says and they committed a perdition by eating from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized on a metamorphosis in which man is a god as from the beginning the gods built the mount olympus and that made human beings understand about their desires and thoughts what life and death should be like as a dream of entry and exit in which the world would find itself possessed of pleasure and will and everyone would enjoy all the needs that life and its relativities if a domain was established between human beings and animals that effectively in everything and for everything would stop at their capabilities, rations, complicity, understandings and actions in which man could establish a conduct or doctrine between tribes and bands that made the world and learned what life taught them and understood about death and life that simply should establish a logic of remaining intact about their more than probable natures, more than dispensable uncertainties with the formalized being in a primate man between a duel with the dinosaurs until the contemporary age that would establish a stronger identity the deconstructions and constructions of life, leaving the earth as an emanation that creates a phenomenal existence of the living being that became man and woman and animals were preserved over all the modalities that supposedly perhaps also man may have come from the ape as primitive man and that the world originated from a great explosion caused by an asteroid in which it destroyed the face of the earth and everything started from nothing as it is also said that the world originated from a great explosion in which the universe was densely hot and that everything was formalized from the sides. Tiles in atoms in which life was formed on earth establishing human beings and animals in which the word of God originates as an emanation of facts occurred from a link that we can simply say that we were built and formalized on an alchemy more focused on an absinthe as an essence would have taken the form of a serpent while the world was improved within a natural harmonization of nature between four constructive elements that emanate life in air, water, earth and fire in which their geniuses can formalize us about an atom and logic in which matter would be part in everything and in all of a smaller fraction of an element whose atomic particles would or would be in a small interval of time that would form in an atomic body called an atom between time and space becoming the universe more between spaces leaving everything and creating everything about an escape route in which planetary life originated and its exit and entrance artifices as creation and destruction in which god would be a homogeneous factor of the universe and omnipotent of all things that were created under a context of construction and destruction god being between various questions of clairvoyance between life as a light, as emanation of life and hate as destruction of death also known as the devil who represents the flames, the eternal fire of god emanating from the devil who is the god himself in the form of light representing the life that supposedly never disappeared and always resurrected above all things of paradise that would be a Going place of all souls where we formalize ourselves as heaven and hell would be the dark side of life that would symbolize the devil in which he would take the lamas to purgatory as a penalty and mortal sin on life and death and the world not another conduct would be established, but heaven and hell would represent life and death between a single god, just as there was only one god and the devil between them, who in two forms would establish one as the world also originated as a great explosion giving exit and entry of escapes as everything was formed and formalized leaving the earth a place to live and die in which the two spheres are more showing us that the greater sin and not believing in God and salvation would be to believe in God the Father Almighty Creator of heaven and earth in which life has always revealed its mysteries among both the depths of heaven and earth that always rebelled us about various purposes of light and darkness, leaving life something superlative about a prodigal nature that has always formalized us by its existence and subsistence in which they are known as good and evil becoming everything in light and darkness, life being something simply like a circle in which we can live and die as construction and destruction of life in cause of death that is dark, cold as in life would be more subtle because it is light, white, hot getting all about an alchemy of a phenomenal existence in which we symbolize their c apacity , complicity and construction in an emanation of time and space in which the universe can perhaps always expand on its vibrational and pulsating flows and it expands itself because it is subtle and destroys itself because it is always dense over an atmosphere hotter than the earth forming in everything and for all a forgotten space in which the hours, minutes and seconds are totaled in a smaller fraction of time forming into atoms and always giving more spatiality to its size and I want to say that life is sister to death like the death be sister of life that there is probably a construction term that we are simply following a path that we should seek real evidence about the existence of life on mortals that in the most thinkable way of building, construction and evolution the human being went through a metamorphosis that it would effectively be the opposite of dying on a fatality that we see life distracted in a context of witnessing its existence and affection of father. ssing on a more different side that casually search for certainties about the uncertainties that naturally must ave a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total disaffection that we call a round trip time in which we can certainly live and prevail certainly the real life.
Maybe we are living or going through a story that today we can fully understand its most complete value that distinguishes us to realize, perhaps between the love that makes us hate and love about a feeling we can feel and that we sometimes go unnoticed to get ourselves to love a woman who we are still predominating our desires over certain things we dream of and we think that there is little or more performance between our desires that we are still learning today. well we say that we can dominate something that favors us between maybe our will and that there may be indifference between the love of a woman who simply makes us love her existence better than we can and we go unnoticed about an improper will to prevail over a duel that formerly like you say that the ancients called and used between certain ways of loving and dying for love between the struggle and the despair of finding a true explanation between the conquest of facing a woman and between their prejudices and prides that perhaps we can say that we were all attracted by the fury of the shaking desire that makes us sustain that we all fall together in this moment when we are attracted by the will and beauty of a true woman even though we are different about our love we sigh in hate that we suspect the truth we only wish to contain between each other in the midst of a catastrophic, prejudiced world that we suffer slightly from hurts and social interactions that it is teaching us to perhaps find a more desirable response to our courage that we may someday understand the sentimental strength of a woman who transpires and makes us enjoy our incapacities without feeling pain because we are between a desire that the love of a woman who makes us love body and soul and that simply does n't it would take them to a flowing and incomparable paradise that would stop us in our hearts by an emotional force that would biologically transform over our organic functions that we would only enter between both things that would resemble paradise more than sentimentally would fill our voids as a cure that makes the man moan without pain as an expression of healing for love between a desire that we can someday understand about love that is something enough that nothing in this world will cover us between certain fantasies that make us fulfill our wills that we are always valuing a woman and her predominant aspects as reflections of an adventurous life that makes us know certain paths that makes us withdraw from our consciences that society ultimately always discriminates between poor women dispensed by uncertain men who perhaps can still value a real woman more than ever in everyone they never say goodbye to their enjoyment for being among many undesired already as they are all the same and show us your value that just makes us moan without pain and that we can see and see what their faces want to tell us deeper inside the soul as an emotional fluid that we lack makes us dusk and we falter between its feminine eyes as we feel attracted by its nature and physical beauty that we will never forget and leave behind on a margin where we can someday understand its magnitude of motivating us amidst a desire to love that makes us moan with this desire between a feminist aspect in which it makes us moan without feeling pain.
I want to talk about a past that dominates us in a context that we simplify love about the magnificent pleasure of a woman in which we tell about several stories even in songs that the man, being exuberant and mischievous, does not hold back to the pleasure of a woman in which his hatred becomes fearful as proof that his emotions are under the fascination of preserving his love that perhaps we can well say that we are learning to live and love still on an effect that makes us feel torn between emotional milieus in which almost everything makes us perish at the domains of life in which we take as the key to existence the pure beauty and finesse of a beautiful woman who may lack pleasure in us and that everything had changed over a resistance of love and pleasure in which jouissance would be justified by a classification in which we suppose we freed of incapacities about a charm that we can fantasize about certain people that can just make us gain what we're looking for and that this thing can match us and What makes us truly understand its value from the bottom of the soul in which it transcends us on a process in which we can remove from the pain the true feeling even though we are not combined on the same existence and that everything will lead us to the pleasure in which this honest fraction we enjoy our desires without feeling pain as an expression of this song that the woman has on her face two bright ones that reflect us as the soul and flame of our wills and may we enjoy this paradise that we dispense with everything in life at this time when we can say that we will be love and we will leave the setbacks that rubify us in life behind and we will enjoy the pleasure of the flesh without feeling pain and we will remain together on two faces that in the end can unite eternally over life.
It all starts with a fight between Greeks and Trojans for Elena, Menelaus' wife. We tell the story of a wooden horse that ended a ten-year war, Menelaus, the greatest of the Spartans, defeated Palís the great seducer humiliating Hector's family in defense of capricious honor, beautiful and affectionate young woman makes the man moan without feeling pain.
Alexander inhuman figure founder of the famous Alexandria conquered in Greece and destroyed almost the entire Theban population, the attractive beauty of Roxana dominated the greatest conqueror and after winning is the winner surrendered to pay more than beautiful, beautiful and affectionate young woman makes the man moaning without pain, the woman has two glowing faces on her face when two faithful to their fates, whoever does not love the feminine smile is unaware of Cervantes' poetry, the bravery of great navigators facing the sky in their cure if it weren't for Maus's wife the flower the story would be a lie, a beautiful and affectionate young woman makes the man moan without pain, Vigulino Ferreira the Lampião brigand of the northeastern jungles without fear of dangers or ruins was the king of the cangaço of the sertão, one more day he felt the spell in his heart Attractive of love, the mulatto woman from the land of the condor dominated a dangerous beast, a beautiful and affectionate young woman makes the man moan without feeling pain. The man for being exuberant and mischievous does not hold back the pleasure of a woman whose hatred becomes fearful as proof that his emotions are under the fascination of preserving his love that perhaps we can well say that we are learning to live and love still on a an effect that makes us feel divided between emotional environments in which almost everything makes us perish in the realms of life in which we take as the key to existence the pure beauty and finesse of a beautiful woman who may lack pleasure in us and who will change everything about a resistance of love and pleasure in which the enjoyment would be justified by a classification in which we suppose we are free from incapacities about a charm that we can fantasize about certain people that can simply make us gain what we seek and that this thing can match us and that makes us era to truly understand its value from the bottom of the soul in which it transcends us on a process in which we can remove the true feeling from the pain no matter how much we are combined on the same existence and that everything will lead us to the pleasure in which this honest fraction we enjoy our wills without feeling pain as an expression of this music that the woman has in her face two bright ones that reflect us as the soul and flame of our wills and that we can enjoy this paradise that we dispense with everything in life at this time when we can say that we are love and we will leave the setbacks that rubify us in life behind and we will enjoy the pleasure of the flesh without feeling pain and we will stay together on two faces that in the end can unite eternally over life. I simply mean that life is sister to death as death is sister to life that there is probably a construction term that we are simply walking down a path that we should look for real evidence about the existence of life on mortals than in the most thoughtful way of building, construction and evolution of the human being has undergone a metamorphosis that effectively would be the opposite of dies on a fatality we see the life being distracted on a context presenciarmos its existence and affection go through a more different side casually seek the envelopes certainties the uncertainties that naturally must ave a construction that puts everything in harmony as well as a deconstruction that puts everything in total disaffection that we call the round trip time that is written in the bible that God created the sky and the sea and men built a fountain very fine about its relationship with life that has always emanated from us in a context of revealing and showing us the realities of the day the day that for a mismatch of time and two days everything becomes the target of a circumstances of love and hate where man can understand and understand his needs for evolution and origin that completed him ten from the beginning of the world in which God created Adam and Eve in paradise and as the holy bible says and they committed a perdition by eating from the tree of life and were expelled from paradise and the world materialized on a metamorphosis in which man is a god as from the beginning that the gods built the mount olympus and that made human beings understand about their desires and thoughts what life and death should be like as a dream of entry and exit in which we would find the world a set of religious doctrines of a syncretic, mystical and initiatory character, possibly added by philosophical reflections, which they seek the knowledge of divinity to achieve the spiritual elevation of man certainly in his life.
Perhaps we are still apprehending something related to the construction of life that for a long time man went through a great change that maybe here we would still be thinking about how it all started from the most remote times how life and its ancestors should have been like gods and various civilizations ancient that tells the story of the world that today we would be deeper in an activity more developed by certain creations of certain civilizations that in some order came into the world billions of years ago and lived on earth and left great scriptures talking about various things in hieroglyphics like the Egyptians and much earlier the Aztecs, Incas and Mayans who lived across the globe that today we have great memories like great pyramids, sacred temples and so on.
Let's go back and let's not mix certain things that maybe today we could still be confused with certain civilizations that marked the world and its great history.
Civilization is a complex concept in anthropology and history. From an evolutionary perspective, it is the most advanced stage of a given human society, basically characterized by its fixation on the ground through the construction of cities, hence deriving from the Latin Civita, which designates city and civile (civil) its inhabitant. Note that this notion translates the ethnocentric concepts of the beginning of anthropology, where complex societies are opposed to primitive ones. It is in this context that the evolutionary sequence savage - barbarism - civilization also appears , understood by Gordon Childe as the obligatory evolutionary stages of ancient societies since the passage of a social/economic/technological system from hunter-gatherers ("savagery") to farmers and shepherds ("barbarism") to the concentration in cities and social division ("civilization"). It is Gordon Childe who popularizes the concepts of Neolithic revolution (or agricultural revolution) and urban revolution to mark the passage between such evolutionary stages of humanity. For Darcy Ribeiro, the sociocultural revolution consists of the historical movement of change in the ways of being and living of human groups, triggered by the impact of successive technological revolutions (agricultural, industrial, etc.) on concrete societies, tending to lead them to transition from one stage to another, or from one sociocultural formation to another.
Note, however, as Matthias points out that this concept of evolution differs from the evolutionist perspective in classical anthropology studies, as it considers the movement of sociocultural evolution as a complex process of civilization, marked by changes and permanencies, whether by evolutionary acceleration (or stagnation cultural) due to the dynamics of the culture itself, whether by updating or historical incorporation due to intercultural contacts. For Darcy Ribeiro, progress and regression are two mechanisms of historical configuration that represent the advance or setback of the productive, social and cultural aspects of a given society in its evolutionary path relative to other societies and not to a specific purpose, which is our society , as evolutionists assume.
In a broader and more commonly used sense, civilization designates an entire culture of a given people and the collection of its own and distinct social, scientific, political, economic and artistic characteristics.
Humanity could be divided into eight civilizations, namely: Sinic or Chinese civilization; Japanese or Japanese civilization; Hindu civilization; Islamic, Muslim or Arab civilization; Western civilization; Orthodox Civilization and Sub-Saharan Civilization. However, Huntington's clash of civilizations perspective has been criticized for its biased, empirically - verified, anti-multiculturalism character .
Darcy Ribeiro, in turn, distinguishes the "Regional Civilizations" (associated with the technological revolutions of metallurgy, irrigation, grazing and slavery) from the "World Civilizations" (associated with mercantilism, industrial revolution and capitalism/socialism). Criteria of historical periodicity and mainly characteristics of its material technological culture can be developed.
Ancient or extinct civilizations have been called those of Antiquity that, due to their achievements, mainly architectural and artistic, began to be studied by historians and archaeologists after their disappearance. Examples of these great civilizations are:
Akkadian Empire (also called Akkadian Empire or Akkadian Empire or just Akkad) was the first empire in Mesopotamia, centered on the city of Akkad and its surrounding region, which the Bible also called "Akkad". The empire united the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under a single government. The Akkadian Empire exerted influence in Mesopotamia, Levant and Anatolia, sending military expeditions south to Dilmum and Magan (now Bahrain and Oman) in the Arabian Peninsula.
The Akkadian period is usually dated c. 2334 to c. 2154 BC . It was preceded by the Archaic Dynastic Period and succeeded by the Third Dynasty of Ur . During the third millennium BC , a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. Akkadian, an East Semitic language, gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language sometime between the third and second millennium BC (the exact date is still a matter of debate). The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the XXIV and XXII centuries BC , following the achievements of its founder Sargon of Akkad. Under the Sargon regime and its successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium . Akkad is sometimes considered to be the first empire in history, although the meaning of this term is not precise, and there have been previous Sumerian claimants. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the people of Mesopotamia finally united into two great Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north and, a few centuries later, Babylon in the south.
The Arabs are a Semitic ethnic group, mainly native to the Middle East and North Africa, originating from the Arabian Peninsula, which is mostly made up of desert regions. The difficulties of planting and raising animals made part of its inhabitants to become nomadic, wandering through the desert in caravans in search of water and better living conditions. These desert tribes are called the Bedouins.
There are three factors that can help, to varying degrees, to determine whether an individual is considered Arab or not:
political : if he lives in an Arab League member country (or, more generally, in the Arab world); this definition covers more than three hundred million people.
Linguistic : if your mother tongue is Arabic; this definition covers more than two hundred million people.
Genealogical : Its ancestry can be traced back to the original inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula.
The relative importance of these factors is estimated differently by different groups. Many people who consider themselves Arabs do so on the basis of the overlapping political and linguistic definition, but some members of groups that meet both criteria reject that identity on the basis of the genealogical definition. Not many people consider themselves Arabs on the basis of political definition without linguistics — so Kurds or Berbers generally identify themselves as non- Arabs — but some do: for example, some Berbers consider themselves Arabs, and Arab nationalists consider the Kurds to be Arabs.
The Assyrians also known as Chaldeans, Syriacs or even Assyrian Christians, Syriac Christians and Chaldean Christians, are a Semitic ethnic group with origins in the Fertile Crescent. Today, its territory is part of several countries, however, contrary to what many believe, the Assyrian people did not disappear after the fall of the Assyrian Empire, but began to constitute ethnic minorities under the domination of other groups since the beginning of the Age Average.
The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-Classic period, from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec peoples included different ethnic groups from central Mexico, particularly those groups that spoke the Nahuatl language and dominated large parts of Mesoamerica among the 14th to 16th centuries. Aztec culture was organized into city-states, some of which joined together to form alliances, political confederations, or empires. The Aztec Empire was a confederation of three city-states established in 1427, Tenochtitlan (city-state of the Mexicas ), Texcoco and Tlacopan , formerly part of the empire of the tepanecas , whose dominant power was the Azcapotzalco . Although the term Aztec is restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan , it is also widely used to refer to people or communities Nahuatl of central Mexico in the pre-Hispanic era, as well as the Spanish colonial era (1521-1821). The definition of the Aztecs has been the subject of academic discussion since the German scientist Alexander von Humboldt established their common usage in the early 19th century.
Most ethnic groups in central Mexico in the post-classical period shared basic cultural traits of Mesoamerica and many of the characteristics of Aztec culture cannot be considered unique to this people. For the same reason, the notion of "Aztec civilization" is better understood as a particular horizon of a general civilization in Mesoamerica . The culture of central Mexico includes the cultivation of corn, the social division between nobility ( pipiltin ) and commoners ( macehualtin ), a pantheon (characterizing Tezcatlipoca , Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl ) and the calendar system of a 365-day xiuhpohualli interspersed with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. The patron god Huitzilopochtli , twin pyramid constructions, and the ceramic ware known as Aztecs I to III are particular to the Tenochtitlan Mexicas . In the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of a dense population and the rise of city-states . The Mexicas arrived late in the valley and founded the city of Tenochtitlan on unpromising islets in Lake Texcoco , later becoming the dominant power of the Aztec Triple Alliance (or Aztec Empire). It was a tributary empire that expanded its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city-states in Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. It originated in 1427 as an alliance between the cities of Tenochtitlan , Texcoco and Tlacopan , which allied to defeat the Tepaneca state of Azcapotzalco , which had previously dominated the basin of Mexico. Soon, Texcoco and Tlacopan were relegated to a smaller partnership within the alliance, with Tenochtitlan becoming the dominant power. The empire expanded its reach through a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling a territory through large military garrisons in conquered provinces, but it dominated its client city-states mainly by deploying conquered friendly rulers, building matrimonial alliances between the ruling dynasties, and extending an imperial ideology to its rendered cities. tribute to the Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani . This economic strategy limited communication and trade between peripheral systems, making them dependent on the imperial center for the purchase of luxury goods. The empire's political influence reached the south, such as Chiapas and Guatemala, and encompassed Mesoamerica , from the Pacific to the Atlantic.
The empire reached its maximum extent in 1519, just before the arrival of a small group of Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés, who allied city states enemy of the Mexica , particularly tlaxcalteca as well as other political organizations Mexica , including Texcoco , his former ally in the Triple Alliance. After the fall of Tenochtitlán on August 13, 1521 and the capture of Emperor Cuauhtemoc , the Spaniards founded Mexico City on the ruins of the ancient Aztec capital. From there, they proceeded with the process of conquest and incorporation of the Mesoamerican peoples into the Spanish Empire. With the destruction of the superstructure of the Aztec Empire in 1521, the Spaniards used the city-states on which the Aztec Empire was built to govern indigenous populations through their local nobles. These nobles pledged loyalty to the Spanish crown and converted, at least nominally, to Christianity in exchange for being recognized as nobles by the Spaniards. The nobles acted as intermediaries to transmit tribute and mobilize work for their new lords, facilitating the establishment of Spanish colonial rule. Aztec culture and history are known primarily from archaeological evidence found in excavations such as the renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; of indigenous writings; eyewitness accounts of Spanish conquerors such as Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo ; and especially the descriptions of Aztec culture and history from the 16th and 17th centuries written by Spanish and Aztec clerics literate in Spanish or Nahuatl , such as the famous, illustrated and bilingual (Spanish and Nahuatl ) Florentine Codex, composed in twelve volumes, created by the Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún , in collaboration with Aztec indigenous informants. Important for the knowledge of the Nahuatl after the European conquest was the training of indigenous scribes to create alphabetic texts in Nahuatl , mainly to help in the process of Spanish colonial rule. At its height, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as notable architectural and artistic achievements.
Babylon in Sumerian ( KÁ.DINGIR.RA) was the central city of the Babylonian civilization, in Mesopotamia, situated on the banks of the Euphrates River. Its ruins are located north of the center of the current city of Hila , capital of the province of Babil , in Iraq, located 100 km south of Baghdad . On at least two occasions, the first in the 18th century BC and the second in the 6th century BC, it was the capital of the main power of Mesopotamia and, in these periods, it is possible that it was the largest city in the world, in which some of the most monuments existed. impressive buildings from Antiquity and which occupied an area of about 10 km² defended by several fences with imposing walls. Its archaeological site was classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 2019.
Located in a fertile region and at a junction of important trade routes, Babylon has become a prominent economic and cultural center, developing a complex, sophisticated and cosmopolitan civilization, documented by many archaeological records that attest to the cultivation of education, commerce, science, of various techniques and art, flourishing in a vast urban complex cut by canals and rich in monuments, temples and imposing buildings. Its society was stratified, dominated by a nobility and high government officials, although little is known about its social organization. It was also an active center of worship, and religion, of a polytheistic character, led by a wealthy and powerful clergy, exerted a great influence on various aspects of public and private life and on the activities of the State.
It is likely that in the 26th century BC there was already a settlement on the site, in the 13th or 22nd century BC it was a smaller city of the Akkadian Empire in the 21st century BC it was a secondary administrative center of the Empire of Ur . In the early 19th century BC , it gained independence under an Amorite dynasty, becoming the capital of what is known as the Paleo-Babylonian Empire , the greatest power of its time in Mesopotamia, whose territories came to include all of Lower Mesopotamia and the valley. from the Euphrates to Mari. The city then reached its first apogee, which culminated in the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BC ; however, it declined from the second half of the 17th century BC due to various internal and external factors, and in 1595 BC it was sacked by the Hittites. There followed a particularly poorly known phase, during which Babylon was ruled by a Cassite dynasty, which would remain in power until the 12th century BC There followed a brief period when much of the Cassite kingdom was under the rule of the Elamite Empire. , following a period when it returned to being the capital of a great regional power under the second dynasty of Isim , between the last quarter of the 12th century BC and c. 1 025 BC, when a period of great political and military instability began, which lasted until the conquest by the Assyrians in the late eighth century BC Under Assyrian rule, Babylon regained some of its importance in the following century and again became the capital of a independent kingdom under Nabopolasar , originally an Assyrian governor, who, in the late 620s BC, overthrew the Assyrian Empire. The city then experienced a new heyday, mainly during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II ( r. 605–562 BC), son of Nabopolasar . Although it lost some importance during the following reigns, the Babylonian empire would only fall with the conquest of its capital in 539 BC by the Achaemenid Empire .
Despite having lost much of its former prominence, Babylon was an important city in the Achaemenid Empire and during Alexander's short reign in the second half of the fourth century BC he lived there for a few months and sponsored the restoration of monuments and canals. After the death of the Macedonian emperor, the city was severely affected by the Wars of the Diadoques . During the Seleucid Empire, it lost its capital status and became Hellenized. While retaining some regional importance, it slowly declined and, during the Parthian Empire, in the mid-third century BC , began to depopulate. Although its great temples remained active and was still a center of commerce in the early 1st century AD , the site was already in ruins by then. The main temple was still functioning in the beginning of the 3rd century, but it is not known when the region was completely abandoned, which happened during the Sassanid Empire . At the beginning of the Islamic period, in the 7th century, it was no more than a small village in the midst of extensive ruins.
Possibly due to its great importance and splendor in a region where some of the greatest civilizations of antiquity flourished, to mentions in the Bible and to its relatively early disappearance, Babylon gradually became a myth, even during the classical period, which persisted and gained contours each. increasingly imaginary during the Middle Ages. The fact that, until the 19th century, Babylon was only known through biblical mentions, in which the city appears as a symbol of sin and decadence, and by reports by Greco-Roman authors, may have contributed to the spread of this legend. , either they never visited it or only did so when there was nothing left of it but ruins. Although its location has never been forgotten, it was only at the beginning of the 20th century that the first important excavations were carried out, under the direction of the German archaeologist Robert Koldewey , who unearthed the main monuments. The important archaeological and epigraphic documentation discovered in the city, complemented by information from other ancient archaeological sites that had relations with Babylon, allowed to form a more accurate representation of the city, beyond the myths. This does not preclude large gaps in knowledge of what is one of the most important archaeological sites in the Ancient Near East, gaps that persist due to archaeological work being halted due to political instability in Iraq since 1990.
Chaldea was a Semitic nation that existed between the late 10th (or early 9th) century BC and the mid-6th century BC after which it and its people were absorbed and assimilated into Babylon.[1] It was located in the southern region of Mesopotamia, mainly on the east bank of the Euphrates River. Often the term Chaldean is used to refer to all the Mesopotamian plain.
Canaanites or Canaanites according to the Bible , would have been one of the seven ethnic divisions or "nations" expelled by the Israelites after the Exodus (other nations were the Hittites, Girgashites , Amorites, Perishites , Hivites and the Jebusites They were the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of Canaan , located in the Middle East, roughly corresponding to the territory of Israel today..
The Carthaginian civilization or Punic civilization was an ancient civilization that developed in the Mediterranean Basin between the end of the 9th century BC and the middle of the 2nd century BC and was the origin of one of the greatest commercial and military powers of its time.
Carthage, the city that gave it its name, was founded on the coast of the Gulf of Tunis by the Phoenicians, according to the more usual tradition, in 814 BC Carthage gradually gained ascendancy over the Phoenician cities of the Western Mediterranean, before developing its own. civilization. This is less well known than that of its contemporary and rival Rome, due to the destruction of Carthage by the Roman army at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC , an ending that is reported by Greco-Roman sources that were widely used and disseminated in such a way. durable in later historiography. Despite being devalued by the Latin expression punica fides, which denotes the prejudice originated by a long tradition of distrust of the Phoenicians since Homer, the Carthaginian civilization raised, however, some more favorable opinions, such as that of Apian , who compared them to the Greeks in power and the Persians in wealth.
The Carthaginian civilization resulted from the mixture of the indigenous culture of the Berbers of North Africa with that of the Phoenician settlers. Therefore, it is not easy to distinguish what is owed to the Carthaginians and what is owed to the Phoenicians in the archaeological finds discovered in the excavations, whose dynamism since the 1970s has opened vast fields of study where a unity in civilization is evidenced despite the existence of particularities locations. Despite progress, many aspects of non-material civilization remain unknown, due to the nature of the available sources, always secondary, as all Punic literature disappeared, with gaps and often subjective.
Celts is the name given to a group of peoples (an ethnonym ), organized into multiple tribes and belonging to the Indo-European language family that spread across most of Western Europe from the 2nd millennium BC The first literary reference to the Celts was made by the Greek historian Hecateus of Miletus in the sixth century BC. Much of the population of Western Europe belonged to the Celtic ethnic groups until the conquest of those territories by the Roman Empire; they were organized in tribes, which occupied the territory from the Iberian Peninsula to Anatolia. Most of the Celtic peoples were conquered, and later integrated, by the Romans, although the Celtic way of life has, in many forms and with many changes resulting from acculturation due to the invaders and later Christianization, survived in much of the territory by them. busy.
There were several Celtic groups made up of various tribes, including the Britons, the Gauls, the Scots, the Eburons , the Belgians, the Galatians, the Trinovantes and the Caledonians. Many of these groups gave rise to the name of the Roman provinces in Europe, which later named some of the medieval and modern nation-states of Europe. The Celts are considered the introducers of iron metallurgy in Europe, giving rise to the Iron Age in that continent ( Hallstatt and La Tène cultures ), as well as trousers in men's clothing (although these are probably originating from the Asian steppes). As it is said that they brought with them a small horse very similar to Portuguese Garan, which in that language means "small horse". Other European regions that also identify with Celtic culture are Wales, a subnational entity of the United Kingdom, Cornwall (United Kingdom), Scotland (United Kingdom), Ireland, Gaul (France, and Northern Italy), Northern Portugal and Galicia (Northwest Spain). In these regions Celtic linguistic traits survive in place-names, in some linguistic forms, in folklore and traditions. The Celtic cultural influence, which has never disappeared, has even experienced a cycle of expansion in its former zone of influence, with the appearance of Celtic -inspired music and the revival of many uses and customs known today as Celticism .
The earliest known written records of Chinese history date to 1250 BC , the Shang dynasty . Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Great Historian (c. 100 BC ) and the Annals of Bamboo (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang , but no writing is known of the period, and the Shang's writings do not indicate the existence of the Xia dynasty . Documents dating from the 16th century BC onwards, which demonstrate that the country is one of the oldest civilizations in the world with continuous existence. Scholars understand that Chinese civilization arose in city-states in the Yellow River valley. The year 221 BC is often referred to as the time when China was unified into a great kingdom or empire, although there were already several states and dynasties before that. Successive dynasties developed systems of bureaucratic control that would allow the Chinese emperor to administer the vast territory that would come to be known as China. The foundation of what is now called Chinese civilization is marked by the imposition of a common writing system, created by the Qin dynasty in the third century BC , and the development of a state ideology based on Confucianism, in the second century BC Politically, China alternated periods of unity and fragmentation, sometimes being conquered by external powers, some of which ended up being assimilated by the Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from different parts of Asia, and later some from Europe carried by successive waves of immigrants, merged to create the image of today's Chinese culture.
The Minoan Civilization arose during the Greek Bronze Age on Crete, the largest island in the Aegean Sea, and flourished approximately between the 30th and 15th centuries BC It was rediscovered in the early 20th century during the archaeological expeditions of Briton Arthur Evans. Historian Will Durant refers to civilization as "the first link in the European chain." The first inhabitants of Crete date back to at least 128,000 BC , during the Middle Paleolithic. However, the first signs of agricultural practices did not appear until 5000 BC , thus characterizing the beginning of civilization. With the introduction of copper around 2700 BC it was possible to start the manufacture of bronze. From this landmark onwards, civilization gradually developed over the following centuries, radiating its culture to a large part of the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its history has presented periods of internal turmoil, possibly caused by natural disasters, which culminated in the destruction of most of its urban centers. Around 1400 BC , weakened internally, the Minoans were fully assimilated by the inhabitants of the Greek mainland, the Mycenaeans, who repopulated some of the main settlements on the island and made it prosper for a few more centuries. With an economy based mainly on foreign trade, the Minoan Civilization shaped all the aspects that characterize it in order to meet the demand of the foreign market. Because Crete is poor in deposits mainly of metals, the Minoans produced agricultural and manufactured surpluses which they sold to obtain metals from Cyprus, Egypt and the Cyclades . To facilitate such commercial exchanges, the Minoans developed a complete system of weights and measures that used copper ingots and gold and silver discs with predetermined weights. Minoan art was extremely fertile and encompasses elements acquired through contacts with foreign peoples, as well as indigenous elements. There were productions using clay (ceramics), semi-precious stones (lithic art) and metals. In all cases the artifacts produced show gradual evolution to as the civilization was specializing. The artistic motifs incorporated in these productions, as well as in the frescoes, in short value scenes that represent nature and/or its elements (animals, plants), processions and/or religious rituals, mythological beings, etc. The Minoan religion was matriarchal. Unlike the Mycenaeans, the Minoans had sanctuaries in natural places (fountains, caves, elevations) or in palaces where there were several spaces dedicated to worship practices. The Minoans initially developed a hieroglyphic writing system, possibly originating from Egyptian hieroglyphics, which evolved into Linear A script, which in turn evolved into Linear B script, which was incorporated by the Mycenaeans to write their archaic form of Greek.
Mesoamerica is the term used to describe the region of the American continent that includes approximately the south of Mexico (from a line starting from the Fuerte river and extending south to the valleys of the Mexican bajío , then heading north to the Pánuco River ), and the territories of Guatemala, El Salvador and Belize as well as the western portions of Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica. Several of the most advanced and complex pre-Columbian civilizations in all of America developed here over the centuries before the Spanish conquest of Mexico, including Olmecs, Teotihuacanos , Aztecs, and Mayans. It is a cultural macro-region of great ethnic and linguistic diversity, whose cultural unity is based on what Paul Kirchhoff defined as the Mesoamerican complex.
Edom was a Transjordan country in the Iron Age. It bordered Moab to the northeast, Arava to the west, and the Arabian Desert to the south and east.
The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was an empire that occupied the present territories of Ethiopia and Eritrea, existing from approximately 1270 (beginning of the Solomonic dynasty) until 1974, when the monarchy was overthrown by a coup d'etat. It was at the time the oldest state in the world, and, apart from Liberia, the only one whose independence successfully resisted the Partition of Africa by the colonial powers of the 19th century.
The Etruscans were a people who lived in Etruria , on the Italian peninsula, south of the Arno River and north of the Tiber, more or less in the area equivalent to present-day Tuscany, with parts of Lazio, Campania and Umbria. They were called by the Greeks tyrsenoi ( tυρσηνοί ) or tyrrhenoi ( tυρρηνοί ), and tusci , or later etrusci , by the Romans; they called themselves rasena or rašna .
It is not known for sure when the forerunners of the Etruscans settled there. Throughout the Bronze Age the peoples that inhabited the peninsula produced a very homogeneous material culture, there is no archaeological evidence showing large-scale foreign invasions, and these peoples, therefore, must have inhabited this region for a long time. From c. 1 200-1 100 BC begin to appear regional differentiations in material culture. In ancient times, the historian Herodotus believed that the Etruscans originated in Asia Minor, but other later writers consider them to be italic. Today it is considered a mostly autochthonous early development with some small oriental contribution. Their language, however, is isolated, and used an alphabet similar to Greek, possibly absorbed through trade with the Phoenicians.
The Villanova culture, the first society to dominate iron in Italy, is considered to be the first evolutionary phase of the Etruscan culture. In its most typical phase, from the 8th century BC onwards , Etruria organized itself as a group of highly civilized city-states governed by an aristocracy, making up the first eminently urban society in Italy and, together with the Greeks, one of the first Europe's urban societies. Its territory has expanded to cover a large part of the Italian peninsula. Inhabiting a very fertile region, they had solid agricultural production, in part exported; they maintained workshops and manufactures of a variety of tools, weapons, and utilitarian, artistic, and decorative items that were much in demand abroad; they exploited rich mines of iron, silver and copper; piracy became a regular practice for them, and they extended around the whole Mediterranean an active network of export and import trade, activities that gave them great incomes and allowed for a brilliant military, social, cultural and artistic flourishing. They were skilled in various techniques of art, manufacturing, handicraft, gold and metallurgy, leaving a large production, found mainly in burials, following an aesthetic that changed over time under the influence of various external influences, owing much to contact with the Greeks and peoples of the East . In their heyday, between the 7th and 5th centuries BC , they were one of the greatest Mediterranean powers. They exerted great influence over the Romans and gave the last three kings of Rome. Its territory was progressively absorbed by the Celts, Greeks, Samnites and mainly the Romans from the 5th century BC onwards , and its culture became extinct in the 1st century BC.
Knowledge of its history, government system, habits, traditions, beliefs and values still has deep gaps and many uncertainties. Not many written documents have survived, the ones that remain are all short and uninformative, and their language has not yet been fully deciphered. Much of the little that is known about the Etruscans comes from Greco-Roman accounts that are not always reliable and from the analysis of archaeological and artistic records, which often do not allow us to establish more than suppositions. For a long time considered a culture dependent on the Greek, showing many points of contact with it, today, although its influence is not denied, the perception of the originality of the Etruscans in many aspects is growing.
The Phoenician Civilization was an ancient civilization whose epicenter was located in the north of ancient Canaan, along the coastal regions of present-day Lebanon, Syria and northern Israel. The Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime commercial culture that spread throughout the Mediterranean Sea during the period from 1500 BC to 300 BC. The Phoenicians conducted trade through the galley, a vehicle powered by sails and oars, and are credited with inventing the biremes.
The extent to which the Phoenicians saw themselves as a single ethnicity is not exactly known; their civilization was organized into city-states , similar to Ancient Greece; each of these constituted an independent political unit, which often conflicted and could dominate one another, although they also collaborated through leagues and alliances. Although the boundaries of these ancient cultures were uncertain and shifting, the city of Tire seems to have marked its southernmost point. Sarepta (present-day Sarafant ), between Sidon and Tyre, is the city most extensively excavated by archaeologists in Phoenician territory.
The Phoenicians were the first society to make extensive use, at the state level, of the alphabet. The Phoenician phonetic alphabet is said to be the ancestor of all modern alphabets, although it did not represent vowels (which were added later by the Greeks). The Phoenicians spoke the Phoenician language, which belongs to the Canaanite group of the Semitic language family. Through maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to North Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the ancient Greeks, who passed it on to the Etruscans, who in turn passed it on to the Romans. In addition to their various inscriptions, the Phoenicians left many other types of written sources, but few have survived to this day. The Praeparatio evangelica of Eusebius of Caesarea , makes extensive quotations of Philo of Byblos and Sanchuniathon .
Germanic or Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethnolinguistic group originating in northern Europe and identified by the use of Germanic Indo-European languages that diversified from Proto-Germanic during the pre-Romanic Iron Age.
Originating around 1900 BC from the culture of rope pottery in the northern German plain, the Germanic peoples expanded to southern Scandinavia and the Euripides River during the Nordic Bronze Age, reaching the lower Danube in 200 BC. 2nd century BC, the Teutons and Cimbri clashed with Rome. In the time of Julius Caesar, a group of Germans led by the Swabian chief Ariovistus expanded into Gaul, until being stopped by Caesar in the Vosges in 58 BC . Emperor Augustus' subsequent attempts to annex territories east of the Rhine were abandoned after the Cherusque prince Arminius annihilated three Roman legions at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD.
In the east, the tribes that had migrated from Scandinavia to the lower part of the Vistula moved southwards, pressuring the Marcomans to invade Italy in 166. Meanwhile, the Germans were influenced through the Etruscan alphabet, which eventually gave rise to their own runic alphabet. By the third century, the Goths ruled a vast area north of the Black Sea, from where they crossed the lower Danube or traveled across the sea, invading the Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia at the height of Cyprus. Meanwhile, growing Frankish and Alemanni confederations broke through the borders and established themselves along the Rhine River border, continually infiltrating Gaul and Italy, while Saxon pirates ravaged the coasts of Western Europe.
After the Huns, in the fourth century, invaded the territories of the Goth King Hermeneric, which at its height stretched between the Danube and the Volga River and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea, thousands of Goths fled to the Balkans, where they inflicted a great defeat over the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople and sacked Rome in 410 under the leadership of Alaric I. Meanwhile, several Germanic tribes converted to Aryan Christianity through the missionary Ulfilas , who invented an alphabet to translate the Bible into the Gothic language .
Having defeated the Huns in the Catalaunic Fields and at Nedau , migrant Germanic tribes invaded the Western Roman Empire and transformed it into Medieval Europe. However, it was only with Germanic help that the empire was able to survive as long as it did, and the Roman army was almost entirely made up of Germans by the fourth century. By the year 500 the Anglo-Saxons were in Great Britain and the Burgundians were in the Rhone Valley. Ruled by Theodoric the Great, the Ostrogoths settled on the Italian peninsula, while the Vandal leader Gaiseric sacked Rome and founded a kingdom in Africa.
In 507, the Visigoths were expelled by the Franks from most of their possessions in Gaul and later ruled a state in Hispania . In 568 the Lombard leader Alboin invaded Italy and founded an independent kingdom which in 774 was overthrown by Charlemagne, who was crowned emperor of the Romans in 800.
In the 8th century, Scandinavian Germanic sailors (commonly referred to as Vikings ) began a strong expansion, founding important states in Eastern Europe and France, while colonizing the Atlantic to North America. Later, Germanic languages became dominant in several European countries, but in Southern and Eastern Europe, the German elite ended up adopting native Slavic or Latin dialects. All Germanic peoples were eventually converted from paganism to Christianity. The modern Germanic peoples are the Danes , Scandinavians, Icelanders, Swedish-speaking Finns, Luxembourgers, German-speaking Belgians and Dutch (Flemish), German-speaking Swiss, Germans, Dutch, Lowland Scots, English and others who still speak languages derived from ancestral Germanic dialects.
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history spanning from the Homeric Period of the 12th to 9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. 600 AD). Immediately after this period was the beginning of the early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.
Approximately three centuries after the Collapse of the Bronze Age of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban polis began to form in the 8th century BC , starting the Archaic Period and the colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, which lasted from the 5th to the 4th century BC . Due to the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedonia, the Hellenistic Period flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. This era came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece and later the province of Achaia during the Roman Empire.
Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on Ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered the seminal culture that provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. The classical Greeks placed great importance on knowledge. Science and religion were not separate and getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods. In this context, they understood the importance of mathematics as a tool for gaining more reliable ("divine") knowledge. Greek culture, in a few centuries and with a limited population, managed to explore and progress in many fields of science, mathematics, philosophy and knowledge in general, which left a lasting legacy.
The Hittites were an Indo-European people who, in the 2nd millennium BC , founded a powerful empire in central Anatolia (present-day Turkey), whose fall dates back to the 13th-12th centuries BC. To its maximum extent, the Hittite Empire comprised Anatolia, currently part of Turkey and regions of Lebanon and Syria.
The Inca Empire was a state created by the Inca civilization, the result of a succession of Andean civilizations, which became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The empire's political administration and armed forces center were located in Cusco (in Quechua, "Navel of the World"), in present-day Peru. The empire emerged in the Peruvian highlands sometime in the 13th century. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used various methods, from military conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andes Mountains, including much of present-day Ecuador and Peru, southern and western Bolivia , northwest of Argentina, northern Chile and southern Colombia.
The empire encompassed several nations and over 700 different languages, the most widely spoken being Quechua. Another language that stood out was the Aymara language, from one of the main component ethnic groups, the Aymara. The Quechua name for the empire was Tawantinsuyu , which can be translated as the four regions or the four united regions. Before the spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo . Tawantin is a four-part group ( tawa means "four", with the suffix -ntin which names a group); Suyu means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four Suyus , whose corners bordered the capital, Cusco ( Qosqo ).
Darcy Ribeiro considers this pattern of social organization, which he calls the "theocratic irrigation empire", similar to those formed more or less two thousand years ago in the Mesopotamia region or to the civilizations that developed in India and China a thousand years later and to the Mayan and Aztecs in Mesoamerica . According to Ribeiro, this type of imperial formation is characterized by irrigation technology (irrigation), developing hydraulic engineering systems, irrigated agriculture (with the exception perhaps of the Mayans who only had the domain of transporting water), copper and bronze metallurgy, techniques of construction (with displacement and cuts of stones until now unknown), numerical notation ( quipos ), ideographic writing (in the case of the Aztecs) and communication techniques. Due to its centralized government, the social organization of the Inca empire is often compared to that idealized by socialist governments.
The Indus Valley Civilization (CVI) was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of South Asia, which existed between 3300 and 1300 BC , reaching its peak between 2600 and 1900 BC along with ancient Egypt and the Mesopotamia was one of the first three civilizations in the region, comprising North Africa, West Asia and South Asia, and of the three, the most widespread, and its complex of urban centers covers an area that extends from the northeast from Afghanistan, through much of Pakistan and west and northwest India. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through Pakistan and along a system of perennial rivers, mostly fed by monsoons, that once flowed near the seasonal Gagar River in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
The cities of civilization were distinguished by their urban planning, brick-roasted houses, elaborate drainage and water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and new techniques of handicraft (cornelian products, stamp carvings) and metallurgy ( copper, bronze, lead and tin). The great cities of Moenjodaro and Harapa very likely had between 30,000 and 60,000 inhabitants, and civilization itself, during its flowering, may have contained between one and five million people. The region's gradual soil drought during the third millennium BC may have been the initial stimulus for the urbanization associated with civilization, but it also reduced the water supply enough to cause its disappearance and the migration of its population eastward. The civilization is also known as the Harapean Civilization , after the city of Harapa , the first to be excavated in the early 20th century in what was then British India and is now Pakistan. The discovery of Harapa , and soon after of Moenjodaro , was the culmination of work that began in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Service of India during the British Raj . However, there were earlier and later cultures, often called pre-Harapean and post- Harapean in the same region. In 2002, it was reported more than 1,000 cities and settlements harapeanos , of which just under a hundred had been excavated, however, there are five main urban places: Harappa , Moenjodaro (UNESCO World Heritage), Dolavira , Ganueriual in Desert Cholistan , and Raquigari . The first Harapean cultures were preceded by local Neolithic farming villages, from which the river plains were populated.
The Harapean language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain as the Indo script has not yet been deciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian language family is a theory espoused by some scholars.
Japan's culture has evolved greatly over time, from the original Jomon country culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from Brazil, Europe and North America. Japanese culture is the result of several waves of immigration from the Asian mainland and the Pacific Islands (see History of Japan), followed by a strong cultural influence from China and then a long period of relative isolation from the rest of the world under the Tokugawa Shogunate until the arrival of black ships from the Meiji Era until the end of the 19th century, when it received a huge foreign cultural influence, which became even stronger after the end of World War II. As a result, a culture distinctly different from the rest of Asia has developed, and remnants of this still exist in contemporary Japan.
In the 20th century, Japanese culture was also influenced by Europe and America.
Despite these influences, Japan generated a unique style of arts ( ikebana , origami, ukiyo -e), craft techniques (dolls, lacquered objects, ceramics), spectacle (dance, kabuki, noh , raku- go, Yosakoi , Bunraku ), music ( Sankyoku , Joruri and Taiko ) and traditions (games, onsen , sento, tea ceremony), in addition to a unique cuisine.
Modern Japan is one of the world's largest exporters of culture. (animes), ( manga ), movies, Japanese pop culture - literature and music have gained popularity all over the world, and especially in other Asian countries.
Along with the United Kingdom and the United States, Japan is and has always been considered a cultural superpower.
The Mayan civilization was a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican culture, notable for its written language (the only writing system in the pre-Columbian New World that could fully represent the spoken language to the same degree of efficiency as the written language in the old world), for its art, architecture, mathematics and astronomical systems. Initially established during the pre-classic period (1000 BC to 250 AD), many Mayan cities reached their highest stage of development during the classical period (250 AD to 900 AD), continuing to develop throughout the post-classical period. , until the arrival of the Spaniards. At its height, it was one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies in the world.
The Mayan civilization shares many characteristics with other civilizations in Mesoamerica , due to the high degree of cultural interaction and diffusion that characterizes the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy, and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization has fully developed. The influence of the Mayans can be detected in countries such as Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador and in the central region of Mexico, more than 1,000 km from the Maya area. Many external influences are found in Mayan art and architecture, which are believed to be a result of commercial and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest.
The Mayan peoples never disappeared, not at the time of decline in the classical period, nor with the arrival of the Spanish conquerors and subsequent Spanish colonization of the Americas. Today, the Mayans and their descendants form sizable populations throughout the ancient Maya area and maintain a distinct set of traditions and beliefs that are the result of the fusion of pre-Columbian and post-conquest ideologies (and structured by near-total approval of Roman Catholicism ). Many Mayan languages continue to be spoken as primary languages even today; the Rabinal Achí , a literary work in the language achi , was declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in 2005. The Mayan architecture was highly developed and boasted works grandiose, technically qualified and with a great variety and beauty of shapes.
Persia is the metonymic name by which the ancient Greeks designated the territory ruled by the Achaemenid kings , whose dynasty (c. 550–330 BC) marked the apogee of the empire, which, thanks to territorial conquests undertaken by Darius I and Xerxes I, had returned become the greatest empire in the known world.
In the 3rd century, under the Sassanid Empire , the word Ērān (Iran) or Ērānšahr ("Land of the Aryans" or "Land of the Iranians") appears . In the 7th century, after the fall of the Sasanians , the country was once again called "Persia" by foreigners. This name would be used until 1934, when Reza Pálavi , by decree signed on December 31 of that year, replaced the name "Persia" with Iran . In fact, the country had always been called "Iran" by its people, although for centuries it had been referred to by Europeans as "Persia" (from Pars or Fars , a province in southern Iran), influenced by the writings of Greek historians . Later, in 1959, both names were officially accepted by the Iranian government, although the name "Iran" became the most common one in the West from 1935 onwards.
Currently, the term Persia is usually reserved for the Persian Empire, which was founded by an ethnic group (the Persians) from the city of Ansan , located in the present-day Iranian province of Fars . The empire was ruled by successive dynasties (Persian or not), which controlled the Iranian plateau and adjacent territories.
"Persian" can therefore mean:
something pertaining to Iran or the Achaemenid Empire;
The native or inhabitant of Iran;
Something pertinent to the Persian ethnic group;
The Persian language , be it Ancient Persian, Middle Persian ( Palavi ) or even Modern Persian ( Parsi ).
Ancient Rome was an Italian civilization that emerged in the 8th century BC Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome on the Italian peninsula, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, estimated at 50 to 90 million inhabitants (about 20% of the global population at the time) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers at its peak between the 1st and 2nd centuries.
In its nearly twelve centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Western and Southern Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe. Rome was dominant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful political entities in the ancient world. It is often grouped in Classical Antiquity, along with Ancient Greece and similar cultures and societies, which are known as the Greco-Roman world.
Ancient Roman society contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, the arts, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religions, languages, and societies . As a highly developed civilization, Rome professionalized and expanded its armed forces and created a system of government called the res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. He achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of a vast system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces and public facilities. By the end of the Republic (27 BC ), Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus. The 721-year Roman-Persian Wars began in 92 BC with their first war against the Parthian Empire. This would become the longest conflict in human history and had great lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. Republican customs and traditions began to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common prelude to the emergence of a new emperor.
Dissident states such as the Palmyra Empire would temporarily divide the empire during the crisis of the third century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by barbarian invasions, the western part of the empire fragmented in the 5th century, which is seen as a landmark by historians, who use it to divide Late Antiquity from the Dark Ages in Europe. The eastern part of the empire remained a power throughout the Middle Ages, until its fall in 1453. Although the citizens of the empire made no such distinction, the Eastern Empire is more commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire" to differentiate it from the state of the Antiquity in which he was born.
Sumeria, something like "land of civilized kings" or "native land" is the oldest known civilization in the southern region of Mesopotamia (present-day southern Iraq), in the region of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, during the Chalcolithic and Old Ages Bronze ( ca. 3300-1200 BC), and one of the first civilizations in the world, along with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.
Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Sumerian farmers cultivated an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which allowed them to settle in one place.
The first prehistoric texts of type proto-writing dates back to ca . 3300 BC , from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr ; the first cuneiform script also appeared around 3000 BC
Modern historians have suggested that Sumer was permanently established between c. 5,500 and 4,000 BC by a people of West Asia who spoke the Sumerian language, an isolated and agglutinating language. These prehistoric peoples are now called " Proto-Euphratines " or " Ubaidians " and are theorized to have evolved from the Culture of Samarra in northern Mesopotamia. The Ubaidians , though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves, are considered by modern scholars to be the first civilizing force in Sumer. They drained the swamps for agriculture, developed trade, and established manufactures, including weaving, leatherwork, metallurgy, masonry, and pottery.
Some scholars dispute the idea of a Proto-Euphratine language ; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of hunter-gatherer peoples who lived in the swamps and eastern Arabia and were part of the region's bifacial culture. Reliable historical records start much later; there is no record of any kind in Sumer that was dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC ). US-Latvian archaeologist Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of eastern Arabia, the present-day Persian Gulf region, before the area was flooded in the last glacial period.
The Sumerian civilization took shape in the Uruk Period (4th millennium BC ), continuing into the periods of Jemdet Nasr and Archaic Dynastic. During the third millennium BC , a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke an isolated language, and the Akkadians, which gave rise to widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from massive-scale lexical borrowing to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This led scholars to refer to the Sumerian-Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BC as a sprachbund . Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC , but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred language. A native Sumerian government resurfaced for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur , approximately 2100–2000 BC , but the Akkadian language also remained in use. The Sumerian city of Eridu , on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to be one of the oldest cities, where three separate cultures may have merged: that of the Ubaidian peasants , living in mud huts and practicing irrigation; that of nomadic mobile Semitic shepherds who live in tents and follow herds of sheep and goats; and that of fishermen, who live in reed huts in the swamps, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.
Ottoman Empire also known as Turkish Empire or Ottoman Turkey, was an empire founded in the late 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the vicinity of Bilecik and Söğüt by the Oguz tribal leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beilhique was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Muhammad the Conqueror. During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of them were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of land around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the center of interactions between the eastern and western worlds for six centuries. Although the decline of the empire is considered a consequence of Suleiman's death , this interpretation is no longer supported by most academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, and military throughout the 17th century and much of the 18th. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system lagged behind those of its European rivals such as the Habsburg and Russian empires . Consequently, the Ottomans suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which led them to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as Tanzimat . Thus, over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became much more powerful and organized, despite suffering more territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged .
The Ottomans allied with the German Empire in the early 20th century, with the imperial ambition to regain their lost territories, joining the Triple Alliance in World War I. The empire was able to sustain much of the global conflict, despite the Arab Revolt in its domain. With records from before World War I, but with greater intensity during the war, several atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks . The defeat of the empire and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers after World War I resulted in its division and the loss of its territories in the Middle East, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence against the occupying powers led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate.
African women:
Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Near Eastern civilization of North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It was part of a complex of civilizations, the Nile Valley civilizations, which also included the southern regions of Egypt, currently in Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. It was bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Libyan Desert to the west, the East African Desert to the east and the first Nile cataract to the south. It was one of the first great civilizations of antiquity and maintained throughout its existence a continuity in its political, artistic, literary and religious forms, which can be explained in part due to geographical constraints, although cultural influences and contacts with foreigners were also a reality.
The Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3100 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, under the first pharaoh ( Narmer ), and developed over the next three millennia. It has historically developed into three great kingdoms marked by political stability, economic prosperity and artistic flourishing, separated by periods of relative instability known as the Intermediate Periods. It reached its peak in the New Kingdom ( ca. 1550–1069 BC), a cosmopolitan era in which, thanks to the military campaigns of Pharaoh Thuthemes III, Egypt dominated an area that stretched from Nubia, between the fourth and fifth falls of the Nile , as far as the Euphrates River, having entered a slow decline thereafter. Egypt was dominated by a succession of foreign powers in this final period. The rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 30 BC , when Egypt fell under the rule of the Roman Empire and became a province after the defeat of Pharaoh Cleopatra (r. 51–30 BC) at the Battle of Alexandria.
Egypt's success is due in part to its ability to adapt to conditions in the Nile Valley. Predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social and cultural development. With surplus resources, the government sponsored mineral exploration of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the development of a writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with neighbors, and wars to defeat foreign enemies and assert dominance. Egyptian. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucratic task for elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people within an elaborate system of religious beliefs.
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the development of mining, topography and construction techniques that allowed the building of monumental pyramids, temples and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships, earthenware and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the oldest known peace treaty, the so-called Treaty of Cadexe . Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were much copied and its antiquities taken to various parts of the globe. Its monumental ruins inspired the imagination of travelers and writers for centuries, and the fascination for antiquities and excavations in the early Contemporary Age was at the origin of scientific investigation of this civilization and led to a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.
The Empire or Kingdom of Axum or Aksum was an African kingdom that became known by the peoples of the region, including the Mediterranean, around the first century. Nilo river. The axumites settled in the region around the 5th century BC , in the city of Axum , and began to conquer other nearby areas, collecting tribute from the defeated peoples. From the second century onwards, they conquered several cities in the Arabian Peninsula and the Kingdom of Cush , considerably expanding their Empire.
The Empire of Ghana, Kingdom of Ghana or Empire of Ouagadu was an ancient empire that dominated West Africa during the Middle Ages. It was located between the Sahara Desert and the Niger and Senegal rivers, far to the north of what is now Ghana. The empire had no name so it was called "Ghana" (meaning "warrior chief") which was actually the title of the leader of that empire. It was probably founded during the 300's, from that date until the 770's, its first rulers constituted the Maga dynasty , a Berber family, although its subjects were made up of blacks from the Soninke tribes . In 770, the Magas were overthrown by the Soninkees , and the empire expanded greatly under the rule of Caia Magã Cisse , who was king around 790.
At that time, the Empire of Ghana began to acquire a reputation for being a land of gold. It reached the height of its glory during the 900s and attracted the attention of the Arabs. After many years of struggle, the Berber Almoravid dynasty rose to power, although it did not hold it for long. The empire went into decline and, in 1240, was destroyed by the empire of Mali.
The Soninke people inhabited the region south of the Sahara desert. These people were organized into tribes that constituted a great empire. This empire was ruled by kings known as caya-magas. They lived from animal husbandry, agriculture and fishing. They inhabited a region with large reserves of gold. They extracted the gold to exchange for other products with the people of the desert (Berbers). The Ghana region became, over time, an area of intense trade. The inhabitants of the empire had to pay taxes to the nobility, which was formed by the kayakers, their relatives and friends. A powerful army protected the land and the trade that was practiced in the region. In addition to paying taxes, villages had to contribute soldiers and farmers, who worked on the lands of the nobility.
The Empire of Mali It was a Pre -colonial African Empire , from the Middle Ages, existing between 1235 and 1670, in the Manden region , in present-day Mali , Sierra Leone, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea and southern Western Sahara. This Empire was one of the most powerful in the history of mankind, being one of the greatest powers of the Middle Ages, as well as one of the richest in gold and precious stones. The Empire is considered the richest in all African history . The Empire was founded by Sundiata Queita and was the most powerful in Western Sahara for many years, expanding the Mandingan language, laws and customs of the people.
Empire Songhai or Empire Sonrai was a pre-colonial African state and great civilization in West Africa developed in areas now belonging mainly to Mali. It has existed since 1464, when it was established by Suni Ali ( r. 1464–1492), but would only reach its apogee during the reign of Aschia Mohammed I (r. 1493–1528) of the Aschia dynasty , whose administrative, religious and educational reforms they consolidated Suni Ali's military conquests and allowed the Songhai Empire to thrive for most of the 16th century. It was conquered in 1591 by troops of the Sultanate Saadiano of Morocco created in its place the Paxalique of Timbuktu .
The Empire of Canem , sometimes referred to as the Empire of Canem-Bornu , was an empire in Africa that existed from the 8th century until 1387. Its history is known primarily from the Royal Chronicle or Girgam , discovered in 1851 by the German traveler Heinrich Barth . The Empire of Canem probably in the 8th century, created by the Zagauas who still inhabit parts of Chad. The country's real chronicle states that the founder of the state was Ibraim, son of Ceife. For centuries he remained animist, but under the influence of missionaries who traveled with the Trans - Saharan trade caravans, he was converted to Islam in the 11th century during the reign of Humé ( r. 1075–1086), first Maí (king) of the Sefaua dynasty . Despite the conversion, several characteristics of pre-Islamic Canembu society remain , especially the divine character of the kings.
During the first successors of Hume , it has been expanded and arrived at its zenith under Dunama II (r. 1210-1248), extending south of modern Libya Feza and northeast of the current Nigerian state of Borno . Under Dunama , technical improvements were made in the army and Canem adopted the Arab steeds, improving the country's military capacity and facilitating expeditions to obtain slaves, Canem's main source of income . Under Cadai ( r. 1248-1277), his son, Canem makes a diplomatic mission to the United Haféssida of Ifriqiya . The following more faced the threat of the saôs , and several monarchs lost their lives. The crisis was overcome with Idris I ( r. 1342–1366), but a dispute for the throne breaks out between his sons and his brother Daúd I (r. 1366–1377), weakening the country and the dynasty and leaving it vulnerable to bullas that invade Canem at that moment. Several more perished in the fighting and under Omar I ( r. 1382–1387) the court was transferred to Bornu , where the Bornu Empire was founded in 1387.
The Empire Monomotapa , Mwenemutapa , Muenemutapa , or even Monomatapa , which was the title of its chief) was an empire that flourished between the 15th and 18th centuries in the southern region of the Zambezi River, between the plateau of Zimbabwe and the Indian Ocean, with extensions probably to the Limpopo River. According to some, the Monomotapa empire was located in Mebiri , north of the present city of Harare, in present-day Zimbabwe.
Nubia is the region located in the valley of the Nile River that is currently shared by Egypt and Sudan. In antiquity, it developed into the oldest civilization in Africa, based on the society of Upper Egypt. Napata , before being the capital of Nubia (independent of its Egyptian colonial metropolis), was a mere Egyptian colony south of Aswan , annexed during the Middle Empire.
Apparently, the Nubians were children of South-Egyptian settlers with Nilotic slaves, which gave rise to the Kingdom of Cush , which existed between the 3rd millennium BC and the 4th century AD. This kingdom was then dominated by the Kingdom of Axum, and at first the Nubians formed new small states outside the occupied region. One of them, Macuria became predominant in the region, signing a pact with Islamic Egypt to preserve its Christian (Coptic) religion, which was maintained until the 14th century, when it was finally submitted to the dominant Arabs, more precisely by the Mamluk Turks, circa 1315. They imposed their Muslim religion and brought to power a Nubian prince converted to Islam.
However, the southern part remained independent, like the Kingdom of Senar , until the 19th century, when the United Kingdom occupied the region. With the independence of the current African states, the Nubians were divided between Egypt and Sudan. In this region, on the great bend of the Nile, in the Sudanese part, are found the ruins of the cities of Napata , near Mount Jebel Barcal , and Meroé which were inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 2003 on the World Heritage list.
The so-called Kingdom of Congo or Empire of Congo (often called Kongo, to differentiate from current countries) was a pre-colonial African state in southwest Africa in the territory that today corresponds to northwest Angola including Cabinda, Republic of Congo, to the western part of the Democratic Republic of Congo and to the south-central part of Gabon. In its maximum dimension, it stretched from the Atlantic Ocean, to the west, to the Cuango River , to the east, and the Ogoué River , in present-day Gabon, to the north, to the Cuanza river, to the south. The Kingdom of Congo was founded by Ntinu Wene in the 13th century.
The region was ruled by a leader called King by the Europeans, the manicongo . It consisted of nine provinces and three regions ( Ngoio , Cacongo and Loango), but its area of influence also extended to independent states such as Ndongo , Matamba , Cassange and Quissama . The capital was M'Banza Kongo (literally, City of Congo), renamed São Salvador do Congo after the first contacts with the Portuguese and the conversion of Manicongo to Catholicism in the 16th century, and renamed back to M'Banza Kongo in 1975.
The kingdom was ruled by a monarchy, which at times in its history alternated between hereditary and elective. The lineage of kings lasted from the foundation of the kingdom in 1390 until its abolition in 1914 by the newly implemented First Portuguese Republic, which reduced the king's title to a mere symbolic figure in the city of São Salvador ( M'Banza Kongo) until 1975, when the newly installed socialist government of Angola ends up abolishing the titles definitively.
Méroe , or Meroe , is an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile River in Nubia, the Nile River valley region that is currently shared by Egypt by Sudan, about 300 km northeast of Khartoum, which was the capital of Kingdom of Cush between the 7th century BC and the 4th century of our era. During this phase, the Nubians invented their own script, called by scholars “market writing ” .
In the place where the city was located, there are more than 100 pyramids in three groups and it is one of the archaeological sites of this region inscribed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in 2003, on the World Heritage list
There are studies that say that the kingdom of Meroe was ruled by queens who received the title-name of Candace , in which the power would be passed to the descendants through the feminine way; this myth has been associated, by some scholars, with the legend of the queen of Sheba .
Diodorus Siculus reports the custom of the kings of Ethiopia (identified in Book III to the city of Meroe ) to reign until they receive orders from the priests indicating that they must die. This custom lasted until the reign of Ergamenes , a contemporary of Ptolemy II, a Greek-educated king and scholar of philosophy, who despised the command of the gods, sent his soldiers to the golden temple of the Ethiopians and passed the priests to the edge of the sword, abolishing this custom.
Greater Zimbabwe is a complex of stone walls situated in eastern Zimbabwe, close to the border with Mozambique. This complex is considered a national monument, which gave its name to the country where it is currently located. The "National Monument of Great Zimbabwe" was inscribed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986.
It is thought that this complex was the capital of a state, known as The First State of Zimbabwe, which flourished in the central plateau of that region between 1250 and 1450. as there are no written records, but it is thought to be related to the invasion of the region by the Mwenemutapas , who gave rise to a great empire, but establishing their capital about 500 km from Great Zimbabwe, near the Zambezi River (see History of Mozambique).
The Shona peoples seem to have settled in this region during the 5th century and, from that time onwards, they began to build these walls which, in the ChiShona language, are called madzimbabawe . Other complexes of this type were found throughout the region, the most important of which, due to the amount of artefacts it contained - Mapungubwe - on the south bank of the Limpopo River, in the present-day Limpopo Province, in South Africa.
Great Zimbabwe is made up of four buildings, which may have been residences, surrounded by the Elliptical Wall, which is about ten meters high and five meters thick in some parts. This wall has a circumference of about 240 meters and a maximum diameter of 90 meters.
The only openings in these walls were the entrance and several drainage channels, reminiscent of castles in medieval Europe.
All these constructions are formed by blocks of stone cut so that they are perfectly adjusted, without having been used any material between them, such as "cement". It is believed that Great Zimbabwe, like other similar buildings, was not initially built in its current form , but was expanded and rebuilt over several centuries.
In addition to the walls, which seem to have constituted the royal residence and, at the same time, a kind of fortress, there were traces of a large population cluster around the monument, estimated at around 20,000 people, living in small houses. , probably built of sticks, but covered with clay, as is still seen today in rural regions of the countries of the region.
The Cultural Landscape of Mapungubwe , in the Limpopo province of South Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers , near the borders with Zimbabwe and Botswana, was included in the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2003 as it represents the remains. of a state that flourished in that region between the 9th and 14th centuries, with characteristics similar to that which gave rise to Great Zimbabwe.
Located in a savannah region with large baobabs , the set includes walls built with stones cut in a regular way and superimposed without the use of any type of cement, and allows distinguishing old palaces that seem to have appeared at various times and a surrounding residential area . Other traces found allow to prove the existence of an important trade with the Arab countries and India, showing that that state developed thanks to its strategic position in the center of the routes between the interior of Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean. It should be noted that Mapungubwe was the first state.
Apparently developed by Bantu peoples from West Africa and connoisseurs of iron technology, traces of pottery from a culture known as “ Zhizo ” have been found in Mapungubwe , dating from the period between 800 and 1000 AD . In the same region, stone instruments and cave paintings were found that indicate the settlement of hunter- gatherer peoples , probably from the Khoisan group , before the arrival of the Bantu .
As with Great Zimbabwe, this huge city was abandoned in the 14th century, probably because of an invasion of the region by ChiShona -speaking peoples that gave rise to the Empire of the Mwenemutapas .
Because of the disease transmitted by the tsetse fly and malaria, the region was only used sporadically as terrreno hunting until the twentieth century, when it discovered artifacts of gold in the ruins of Mapungubwe . This led to a “gold rush” but in 1932 the University of Pretoria acquired part of the land and started an archaeological project , which led to the study of the site and eventually to the creation of the Mapungubwe Museum at that university.
Legendary and Fictional Civilizations
Does the sinking of Atlantis correspond to the Universal Flood?
Popular culture and the genius of some writers also speak of certain legendary civilizations, which have supposedly been forgotten by time, but for which in fact there is no hard evidence.
The common pattern in these cases is that of a utopian land of wealth and prosperity that is somehow isolated from the rest of the world and eventually destroyed in catastrophe. Among these legendary civilizations stand out:
Avalon (probably from the Celtic abal : apple) is a legendary island of Arthurian legend , famous for its beautiful apples. It first appears Historia Regum Britanniae ("The History of the Kings of Britain") by Godfrey of Monmouth as the place where King Arthur's sword the Excalibur was forged and later where Arthur is taken to recover from his injuries after the Battle of Camlann . As an "Isle of the Blessed" Avalon has parallels elsewhere in Indo-European mythology, in particular the Irish Tír na nÓg and the Greek Hesperides , also known for their apples. Avalon has long been associated with immortal beings such as Morgana Le Fay .
Agartha or Agarta , sometimes called Agharta , would be a realm situated in the heart of the Earth, and sometimes within the Earth. In this sense, the belief in its existence would be associated with theories of the Hollow Earth and the sacred city of Shambhala .
Shambhala , not necessarily understood as an underground realm, in the imagination of Buddhism and Hinduism, among others, is associated with the axis mundi , or mythological primordial axis of a people or culture, being one of the eight sacred cities located in the fourth dimension, as understands the occult tradition, based mainly on texts from Buddhism and consequently from Hinduism .
From that mythical realm, a monarch named Melki-Tzedek , or Melchizedek , would rule the world. This mysterious character is quoted in the Bible. In Tibetan Buddhism it is believed that there would be channels of connection between Shambhala and the Buddhist kingdom of the Dalai Lama.
Atlantis, "Daughter of Atlas". It is a legendary island or continent whose first known mention goes back to Plato in his works " Timaeus or Nature" and " Critias or Atlantis".
In Plato's tales, Atlantis was a naval power located "beyond the Pillars of Hercules", which conquered many parts of Western Europe and Africa 9000 years before the era of Solon , ie approximately 9600 BC . After a failed attempt to invade Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean "in a single day and night of misfortune."
Scholars dispute whether and how Plato's story or tale was inspired by ancient traditions. Some investigators argue that Plato created history from memories of ancient events such as the eruption of Thera or the Trojan War, while others insist that he was inspired by contemporary events such as the destruction of Helique in 373 BC or the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415 BC – 413 BC.
The possible existence of Atlantis has been actively discussed throughout classical antiquity, but it is usually rejected and occasionally parodied by current authors. Alan Cameron states that "it is only in modern times that people have begun to take the history of Atlantis seriously; no one did in antiquity." Although little known during the Middle Ages, the history of Atlantis was rediscovered by humanists in the Modern Age. Plato's description inspired utopian works by several Renaissance writers, such as Francis Bacon in "New Atlantis". Atlantis still inspires literature - from science fiction to comic books - and cinema. His name became a reference for any and all assumptions about lost advanced prehistoric civilizations.
Cimmeria is a fictional land of barbarians in the Hyborian Age and the birthplace of Conan the Barbarian in the works of Robert E. Howard. Howard originally described Cimmeria in a poem of the same name and later expanded the idea into book form. Although the rest is Howard's creation, Cimmeria's original name and description are from The Odyssey , Book 11, lines 12-18.
El dorado is an ancient indigenous legend from the time of the colonization of America and attracted many European adventurers. The legend told of a city that was all made of solid and pure gold, besides having many other treasures in the city.
The Eldorado was believed to be in various regions of the New World: some claimed to be in what is now the Sonoran Desert in Mexico. Others believed it to be in the region of the sources of the Amazon River, or even somewhere in Central America or the Plateau of Guianas, a region between Venezuela, Guyana and northern Brazil in Roraima.
The fact is that these are some - among many - guesses of the possible location of Eldorado, nurtured during the colonization of the American continent. Despite the legend, a lot of gold and silver were discovered in America, in territories such as Alto Peru, Southeastern Brazil (Minas Gerais) and in regions where the Aztec, Inca and Mayan civilizations lived.
The term Eldorado means the golden (man) in Spanish; according to legend, such was the wealth of the citadel that the emperor was in the habit of wallowing himself in powdered gold, so that his skin was golden.
Lemuria is a hypothetical "lost land" that would be located in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific, as postulated by a now discredited 19th-century scientific theory. The idea was then adopted by the occultists of the time and was consequently incorporated into pop culture.
Shangri-la , from the literary creation of English James Hilton, Lost Horizon ( Lost Horizon ) of 1933, is described as a paradisiacal place located in the mountains of the Himalayas, home to wonderful panoramas and where time seems to stop in an environment of happiness and health, with the harmonious coexistence between people from the most diverse origins. Shangri-la will be felt by visitors either as the promise of a possible new world, in which some choose to live, or as a frightening and oppressive place, from which others choose to flee. The novel inspired two film versions in the following decades (in 1937 and 1973). In the Western world, Shangri-la is understood as a hidden earthly paradise.
I want for a big abbreviation of my secular thoughts and understandings to speak here about how it all perhaps began that from my words I will show how the world originated involving countless civilizations between races and their events leaving our planet as a true atlas of fearless stories that have changed the world and our lives with its creation, evolution, social imbalances until the awakening of our lives, everything being a fact that occurred and narrated by me as a complete study that involves all my sociology, physics, psychology, philosophy and science to the most setbacks real and fundamental of all existence.
Perhaps we are prescribing the most stenciled life in which we are driven more by the fascination of living and conquering life fully in which society can be something else in which it lives its best and worst moments in life in circumstances with all the transformation of the world that maybe we can understand how the world was made of a great atomic explosion, which is why the universe was created that was very hot and dense in which everything can be contained as a whole relative to life in which we are everything in the universe in one combination of atoms that enter into organic functions establishing certain metabolic developments for the formation and creation of the human being as well as all atomic elements on the existence of the universe are related, establishing life on earth that maybe we can benefit as a vital source of our life in that we need to live on the deficient decals of nature where ever as the universe destroys itself and the at the same time it builds on a process of life and death to establish life on earth, making society subject also as the physical universe to material factors that focus on the soul passing to the human being's spirit causing the psyche in such causes of loss or gain in the sentimental life of someone who is going through such emotional disorders generated perhaps in religious, political, labor and educational doctrines getting everything about social life with the transformations of the world about the man who is contained in various transformations of all existence in the world turning to society.
I've been approaching it as a function more related to a mode of behavior in social relations that I decipher in my psychology that is based on the sociology that I've always been dedicated to and interested in as a more deeply studied case with bases, rules and therapies in which I see today's world is more catatonic for perhaps not living better and favoring certain circumstances that today's man may still be unable to apprehend, first of all, to value his own life and that of others because almost all of them can be schizophrenic by human nature and there is a set of ideas that may be well favored to a behavior of optimism for the emotional life of certain people that will apply to certain things that may consequently vary on a surface of free will in which moral integrity is preserved and personality becomes something more commonly about various mental balances when reality is no longer offending the guidelines of a person who might be be fully happy and how discouragement can perpetuate a key in himself that will lead him to a state of destructive behavior that imprisoned him on his wills that needlessly always affect him as a preservation of his image about life as certain imbalances that always pursued and what can be called a side effect that resembles on the social life that we prescribe in the psychoanalysis of life as a contradiction of winning and losing that we will just be able to someday understand where we can certainly be mentalizing ourselves about a concept that we will still understand your priorities.
Maybe we are thinking about a way to change our paths, to imprison the mental chain that always emphasizes us in a social way that is just taking us as school concepts about a world in which we prevail of certain fantasies that feed us conductively about certain heroines that they are going through great walking metamorphoses that want to lead us to certain concepts that are not prevailing over the society that lives more today to conquer something bigger and better that doesn't make us perish over the realities of life that maybe is teaching us to preserve our education with the realism, pleasure, conquest , fantasies and personal maturation so that later we do not frustrate from life that is simply flowing like a flow certain doctrines that human beings have not yet learned and understood that life is just an educational school favored by a concept that society maybe someday I can thank you for your prejudices, doctrines between religion and policies that basically always prevailed and undid in human beings to simply show that the world was made of an order that many suffered and few understood its origin and tradition that here maybe we can follow its dramas, action and that all realism becomes more focused on a simple the idea that we are just knowing certain ways of living and being happy when they are caught between love and hate, between fear and courage that relate us to the society that is forced to be molded by iron and fire, staying for life something to be studied about all the things that involve us gifting ourselves with something of value earning heaven as something worthwhile and earning hell as something worthless that drastically we couldn't be as superficial as the world is showing us among our social relationships our desires between the oppressive realities of life our weak point which is perhaps our optimism to win and not lose in how much life will always be like this and we have to learn why we are just building our dreams that we inevitably lose as realities and we oppress ourselves in the middle of society that can control the will because then we will be someone and earn a living and maybe we are thinking about a way to change our paths, imprison the mental chain that always emphasizes us in a social way that is just taking us as school concepts about a world in which we prevail from certain fantasies that feed us conductively on certain heroines who go through great walking metamorphoses that want to lead us to certain concepts that are not prevailed over the society that lives today more to achieve something bigger and better that does not perish on the realities of life.
I've been approaching it as a function more related to a mode of behavior in social relations that I decipher in my psychology that is based on the sociology that I've always been dedicated to and interested in as a more deeply studied case with bases, rules and therapies in which I see today's world is more catatonic for perhaps not living better and favoring certain circumstances that today's man may still be unable to apprehend, first of all, to value his own life and that of others because almost all of them can be schizophrenic by human nature and there is a set of ideas that may be well favored to a behavior of optimism for the emotional life of certain people that will apply to certain things that may vary consequently on a surface of free will in which moral integrity is preserved and personality becomes something more commonly about various mental balances when reality is no longer offending the guidelines of a person who might be be fully happy and how discouragement can perpetuate a key in himself that will lead him to a state of destructive behavior that imprisoned him on his wills that needlessly always affect him as a preservation of his image about life as certain imbalances that always pursued and what can be called a side effect that resembles on the social life that we prescribe in the psychoanalysis of life as a contradiction of winning and losing that we will just be able to someday understand where we can certainly be mentalizing ourselves about a concept that we will still understand your priorities.
How much the society does not grasp himself master never dominated the life drastically is only intended and we should grasp a more passive way to control our impulses inevitably want to drive us and surprise us about the realities that the world shows us socializing society that emotionally may be dying because life is not what we dream and what we prescribe because life is simply what we should just apprehend.
I want for a big abbreviation of my secular thoughts and understandings to speak here about how it all perhaps began that from my words I will show how the world originated involving countless civilizations between races and their events leaving our planet as a true atlas of fearless stories that have changed the world and our lives with its creation, evolution, social imbalances until the awakening of our lives, everything being a fact that occurred and narrated by me as a complete study that involves all my sociology, physics, psychology, philosophy and science to the most setbacks real and fundamental of all existence.
Perhaps we can understand how it all started and we could even talk about the construction of life in which he built the tree of life which is a sacred symbol of creation.
The Tree of Life is a sacred symbol of creation, fertility and immortality. It represents the link between heaven, earth and underworld. Its leaves grow towards the sky, while its trunk relates to the earth. Its roots, finally, lie in the underworld. It is present in most cultures, so it carries many different symbolisms. The Assyrian Tree of Life is the best known among all sacred trees and is associated with Ishtar , goddess of fertility and destruction (the most important deity in Mesopotamia). It is from the tree of this Mesopotamian people that the Kabbalistic Tree of Life arises, the tree of the Babylonians, the Egyptians and the Islamic civilization. It is from it that the Tree of Paradise that appears in the Bible also evolves, also known as the Tree of Genesis.
We can define the human being in various aspects that resembles the tree of life that can be or be related to the thought and feeling that formalizes us about such transformations of living according to the means we deal with the existence of the power of God's creation as well as the creation of the universe that we can prescribe to ourselves on the love and hate that prevail our emotions of living when the world is expanding more and more that by its existence we could conserve ourselves among the four elements of nature that enable us to perform extraordinary functions metabolic processes in a constitution of vitamins, proteins and minerals that preserve us and give stimuli, developments to the human being, which is a small universe as an atom that in a smaller fraction is able to enter into combination, supposedly to destroy it, indivisible moment and short space and we have the tree of life within ourselves and everything is contained in an atomic relationship that we now have in the nucleus as an electron n, protons and neutrons that made the human being's life and formed a body that is called an atom and This name was proposed by the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus. Chemical elements, molecules, substances and organic or inorganic materials are formed by atoms as the world was also built perhaps by a subsequence of nuclear elements that stabilized and formed a body or nucleus forming life on earth.
Life and death would certainly be sisters of a contradiction in which we simplify in everything that life formalizes us, maybe in everything there can be deaths as there is life in everything there is also life and also death that we simply mean that the world was created of construction in representation of good with light, love and life as well as the world was destroyed of deconstruction in representation of evil with dark, hate and death, leaving life and death as a back and forth setback of an emanation in which god can be contained and yes they would be indivisible between the two terms classified as life and death as well as an explanation of life and death would be logical, leaving a term life and death and love and hate more sufficient.
Everything is in perfect union and in everything the existence does not stop with its rhythm that makes us say that we are alive today and maybe tomorrow we will die from something generated by the fate of death that in life does not stop to madden many people from different places in one sum of points that life will not connect for the same sum of points that life has to create, everything being in a natural equality in which we take our commitments with the realities of life and we will not fear the negative death that wanders and messes up everything in the a life in which God I create in a sovereign equality from one day everything joins the same dust to again and again begin with everything else life.
The Universe is everything that physically exists, the sum of space and time and the most varied forms of matter, such as planets, stars, galaxies and the components of intergalactic space. The term Universe can be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos, the world or nature. The observable universe is about 46 billion light years in radius. Scientific observation of the Universe has led to inferences from its earlier phases. These observations suggest that the Universe is governed by the same physical laws and constants for most of its length and history. The Big Bang theory is the prevalent cosmological model that describes how the Universe evolved from the first 10-44 seconds (Planck's Time) to today. Observations of supernovae have shown that the Universe is expanding at an accelerated speed and is increasing more and more and so lives are formed as well as some parts that always show us as beginning, middle and end in which we can believe in the existence of the life and how everything was formed about the world until today. Thanks!
Sincerely: Roberto Barros