A pedagogical study on education, philosophy, greek literature, in the world by Roberto Barros

Today is October 23, 2022 where we can define and present a great classification of great ideas that we see today with more purity and quality that the human being may have gone through a great constructive and realistic infinity that served as support over the other affections and developments of living that he himself socialized on an intuitive class to preserve his life and his ability to develop varies and extraordinary socialist bases and conducts due to the severe consequences that made the human being impose on his most logical needs to develop in the material world a large classification of artifacts and ideas that, in the background of the realist system, he has grasped with his life all the certainties and uncertainties of promoting himself in the world in which his daily life has proposed him a great satisfaction or loss intheir acts and adjustments that we see all social relations cool and heat up under a hard and severe dignity of survival amidst a nervous war that socially has reached chaos that we only admit and tolerate all our satisfactions and constructions about the old life as much as time always tells us how far we can walk and return to the same path as always and that we have to follow a road that gives us more esteem for ourthan to follow a path that gives us more esteem for ourthan to follow a path that gives us more esteem for our lives and that the world would be precisely a school of artifacts that has always taught us to live through certain moments of destruction and construction that, in the end, we learn to live and truly recognize life and the world that has always taught us good and bad things and that for you to live it is necessary to understand life precisely because we are subject to all the modalities that oppose us to the real commitment to life and come to education to logically show us all the certainties of the incapacities that move us and have always made us suffer and thinking more logically about life comes and we learn certain things that through an infinity of dramas and works even made us understand all the maneuvers and needs that surprised us as the wars between different countries causing great and true dramas and circles of terror that made the human heartto feel in his skin his frigidity and insufficiency of surviving under the great frictions of man who, in turn, and the magnitude that shows himself over life in the face of a great benevolence of detachment, lack of love and despair, he himself made himself live and die under a great moral and civic by the bases of knowledge using intelligence great creations to kill and destroy their own lives and the lives of many innocents on the face of the earth in which the world has been devalued and ignored all its capabilities between the power of conquest and mass destruction that it has conceived between a great study for battle and destruction when many developed certain abilities to create something more superlative and satisfying the life that admitted to it security and balance.lack of love and despair he himself made himself live and die on a great moral and civic maladjustment by the bases of knowledge using intelligence great creations to kill and destroy his own life and the lives of many innocent people on the face of the earth in which the world was devalued and ignored all his abilities between the power of conquest and mass destruction that conceived him between a great study for battle and destruction while many developed certain abilities to create something more superlative and satisfying the life that allowed him safety and balance with life that all his moral and intellectual relationships between man and nature were classified, who dedicated himself to the study of life, learning and learning about great histories and sciences that made him survive and build on the positive side of the human being to know and educate about the modalities that made him survive and conquer the world in which it was so satisfying that he developed several theories between physics, literature, philosophy,science like others that satisfactorily surprises us with our course on life and that has always revealed to us the truth about a great satisfaction and recognition of the human being about life as an emanation and evolution of the human being with education that reveals to us many logics and fundamentals with life and I want to talk about philosophies that certainly reminded me of great Greek stories of great philosophers of Greece and we see today that life has in its classification in both ancient and modern times a great variety that talks about society and cultural development of the human being about great practices of philosophies that led man to prescribe several theories among certain psychoanalyses that we remember many like Freddie and other great scientists who always transcribed certain ideas about life both in psychology and inphysics between a great relativity of artifacts and creations that led man to great theories when science taught us certain attributes life that made us know the world and life between the pleasures of matter and spirit that developed in theory various practices of maturation and growth of the human being on the its certainties and uncertainties against the time of great knowledge that reminded me of the great discovery of the theory of relativity as well as great thinkers of a great time of dreams where the fantastic fantasy gave rise to the world of dreams and secret desires that made the human being knowing deeply the space conquering the moon as well as other planets and knowing deeply the sea and its underwater life that tells us several stories of great poets and philosophers like pluto,Socrates and others who always spoke of Atlantis and its more than dreamed mysteries when its legend and history that was kept in a great philosophical and historical tale about great words of great philosophers who always transcribed the logic of life and its relations between the human being and the nature and everything has a logic and foundation that led us to know life, everything being kept in time as a true story in which several men have fought about great wars and constructions in the life of the human being ten from ancient times to the present day that we will be able to observe certain philosophies and practices about Egypt, Rome and Greece that portrays us with great stories that marked the time in search of a freedom in which perhaps the world lived several living beings that show us different writings of hieroglyphs,uniform or how many others that man tries to unravel its words and its mysteries as its development on life and growth on the world that makes us think today with so many in-depth and logical theories that in the world there were already several gods that emanated great pleasures about great scientific teachings in which philosophy in ancient times gained forms and reactions about the knowledge of life getting each more passive tale about the development of man who perhaps may have recognized god as a great universal transformation that reminds me in the great words of great Greek philosophers who tell and report a great sincerity of man about life that transfers us and transforms us into certain historical artifacts that shows us an infinity of knowledge and self-esteem that preserves us about the great development of religion on the conquest of being human and ascent to the search for god in great logics and words that in every theory we are left about the knowledge and development of education between man and religion that we can transcribe several reports about agreat ark of certain works of philosophies in which man is a little of everything that everything there is in the universe and so we prescribe the most teaching human nature that stays all the modalities and relationships at the step of eternity that we can understand the whole history of life about several transmissions and words of great sages and masters of knowledge giving space to great theories and logics that speak of life and its constructions and relationships between human beings and nature that surprise and delight us with their purity and source of knowledge that has remained in history of life several scientists and alchemists who developed different skills about life and so would philosophy be a great cause more just and expressive for all fantasies dreamed and studied in depth andlittle of everything that everything that is in the universe and so we prescribe the most teaching human nature that stays all the modalities and relationships at the step of eternity that we can understand the whole story of life on various transmissions and words of great sages and masters of knowledge giving spaces to great theories and logics that speak of life and its constructions and relationships between human beings and nature that surprise and delight us with their purity and source of knowledge that has remained in the history of life several scientists and alchemists who have developed various skills about life and so would philosophy be a great cause more just and expressive for all fantasies dreamed of and studied in depth andlittle of everything that everything that is in the universe and so we prescribe the most teaching human nature that stays all the modalities and relationships at the step of eternity that we can understand the whole story of life on various transmissions and words of great sages and masters of knowledge giving spaces to great theories and logics that speak of life and its constructions and relationships between human beings and nature that surprise and delight us with their purity and source of knowledge that has remained in the history of life several scientists and alchemists who have developed various skills about life and so would philosophy be a great cause more just and expressive for all fantasies dreamed of and studied in depth andrelationships through eternity that we can understand the whole story of life on various transmissions and words of great sages and masters of knowledge, giving space to great theories and logics that speak of life and its constructions and relationships between human beings and nature that surprise us and enchants us with its purity and source of knowledge that was in the history of life several scientists and alchemists who developed different skills about life and so philosophy would be a great cause more just and expressive for all fantasies dreamed and studied in depth andrelationships through eternity that we can understand the whole story of life on various transmissions and words of great sages and masters of knowledge, giving space to great theories and logics that speak of life and its constructions and relationships between human beings and nature that surprise us and enchants us with its purity and source of knowledge that was in the history of life several scientists and alchemists who developed different skills about life and so philosophy would be a great cause more just and expressive for all literally the search for man through time and the island of fantasy and the city of dreams that reveal great and extraordinary mysteries about the severe love that makes man develop under his circumstances the best fullness of dreaming and conquering the world and the life that makes you think through different times in which your hour can be traced like a deck of cards on the table and on the hands of the clock on the wall which is like walking on the steps of life and prescribing all the most prescribed realities along the path of life. truth that can be useful to you as the path of lies that can bring you bad omens and that way old stories and logics are preserved giving space every second of time about the meanest hours of everyday life when we dream of something superlative to ours lives as much as the severe hatred that makes theman to trace several obscure paths in too much of the will sega or obstinate displeasure of uncertainties that seeks him madness and despair about life and its paths that are setbacks of radicalized artifacts to the system of reality that always infiltrates and dissolves in the way or the way destructive way of living that is not of its own nature and will not lead to certain desires that at the bottom of the well can be your worst enemy that in the end will cause you true death and so life walks after a more loving response or feeling of surviving as long as we are right with life and so we can understand its factors and stand out from its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usof uncertainties that seek him madness and despair about life and its paths that are setbacks of radicalized artifacts to the system of reality that always infiltrates and dissolves in the destructive way or way of living that is not of its own nature and does not lead to to certain desires that at the bottom of the well can be your worst enemy that in the end will cause you the real death and so life walks after a more loving answer or feeling of surviving when we are right with life and so we can understand its factors and stand out of its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usof uncertainties that seek him madness and despair about life and its paths that are setbacks of radicalized artifacts to the system of reality that always infiltrates and dissolves in the destructive way or way of living that is not of its own nature and does not lead to to certain desires that at the bottom of the well can be your worst enemy that in the end will cause you the real death and so life walks after a more loving answer or feeling of surviving when we are right with life and so we can understand its factors and stand out of its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usit undoes the destructive way or way of living that is not of its own nature and will not lead to certain desires that at the bottom of the well can be your worst enemy that in the end will cause you true death and so life walks after an answer or feeling kinder to survive when we are right with life and so we can understand its factors and stand out from its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usit undoes the destructive way or way of living that is not of its own nature and will not lead to certain desires that at the bottom of the well can be your worst enemy that in the end will cause you true death and so life walks after an answer or feeling kinder to survive when we are right with life and so we can understand its factors and stand out from its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usand to stand out from its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes usand to stand out from its abstractions as a way out of the bad way and if we recognize all the fatalities of peace and quiet when logic makes us

understand the true system of survival and support over the other reasons and reactions of life and so we see philosophy as a dagger that overloads us with a great atmosphere that in the end will lead us to the true destination called the arrival point where we can see a better life and their realities with a reasoning of our wills and projections as true dreams,fantasies of our minds in which we transcribe all the moments and times that make us feel attracted and absorbed by something or something related to the will that we can unforgettably improve on our knowledge becoming an analogy and something systematized the true way of living and being happy and I also want to talk about the literature that has developed since ancient times until today, which portrays us as a true study and role in the culture of many people, both ancient and modern, who have always dedicated themselves to the best ways of writing different stories among their logics and theories. that makes us think how we carry between a group of words a certain grammar that preserves us and preserves us on a large role of showing various contexts of a great reaction and creation of several artists of different times thatmade us think and showed us a path full of certain words and stories with different narrations that propose a real recognition with the world culture that shows us a great trajectory of knowledge between the man who sees life and that his words have shown to the world a certain path and duty that we delve into a more classical memory of seeing several things ancestors until today that we can describe a paper on the true history that keeps us memorized about certain circumstances of life in which the historian sees life more constant and that he has to draw from certain proofs and certain theories between a metaphysics a notion about life that reflect us on a natural margin of knowing the true life and its stories as a real fact that makes us prove an existence about the hard reason to live as a commitment to struggle that speaks of old tales and old stories that begins with certain scrolls between certain paths that we see today and we can understand its cause and mystery that we are certainly living a certain time of beautiful words that are formed on a beautiful context between man contemporary that made us describe its history that were well guarded on a foundation and growth on a moral and cultural concept that today we can see and we describe the better life with more affinity in which we can dodge on a more qualified path that will always show its most important role. trust you and teacher of a more applicable and real literature to the great cultural development of modern man forever as a true context in which we can show a true history and fundamental narration to the world and it is no longer written inpapyri as in the past because we see today's writing more docent in what would be simply the path of illustrious education that reveals to us the beautiful quality of life and that distances itself from the bad murmured time of the illiterate that today we can better show the

path of truth where writing has its name and preservation of its acts on sheets that dominate the world of benevolence that perhaps silenced the evil of life for a small interval of time over a monotony that few are similar and we see the world more united and the people more defined with reason and the construction of life and so everything can be contained on a set of ideas that clothes the environment against perhaps the biodiversity of ignorance and that we can better validate life in its empowerment with the truth and human recognition with life and we are going to talk here a little about education in Brazil and in the world where we also demonstrate beautiful philosophies to better classify the most realistic identity of living and to have a more perfect idea and logic for everyone in life and beautiful literature to show better aesthetic useof written language as well as literary art about its works of recognition and aesthetic value for all ages to everyone forever and I want to talk here about education and thank you all very much for this interpretation that I made for everyone and thank you.

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL AND IN THE WORLD

Written by Olívia Baldissera | Aug 16, 2021 6:25:04 PM

Not only was the content updated and new subjects were added to the curriculum. New pedagogical practices were incorporated into the range of teacher methods, which

today relies on the latest neuroscience discoveries to improve teaching.

But how did we get here? In this article, you will find a brief history of education to understand how the teaching and learning methods and process have changed in recent centuries.

In order to reflect on the history of education, we will stick to 18th century France and England as starting points, as they are the countries in which pedagogical ideas and practices were developed, applied until today in the classroom.

The history of education from Europe

18th century

The 18th century was marked by the spread of Enlightenment ideals, the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) and the French Revolution (1789-1799). The Enlightenment transformed the history of education by valuing rationality, scientific thinking, the improvement of the individual and political and religious freedom.

Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) defended a pedagogy aimed at the development of the citizen and the formation of the human being as a subject, through games and manual work that would allow direct contact with nature.

The French Revolution established an order ruled by the State, and no longer only by religion. If before education was offered by religious congregations, it also becomes a duty of the nation. Education, in theory, should be universal, secular, compulsory and free.

It is in post-revolutionary France that the school model adopted until today in the public network was established: state centralism, creation of a specialized body of professionals, levels of education and content character. It is in the same period that the schooling of childhood begins in the history of education.

19th century

The factory production established by the Industrial Revolution influenced the modern school. Punctuality, moral values and technical education were the priorities at that time.

A pedagogical practice developed in England in the 19th century and which spread to other countries, including Brazil, was the mutual method, also called Lancasterian. Each teacher had a group of monitors, formed by more experienced students who instructed their colleagues. The idea was to teach as many children as possible at the same time.

Throughout the 1800s, pedagogy and psychology gained space in the scientific environment, mainly influencing the primary school. The 20th century begins with European countries focused on an education seen as bookish and verbal, while the United States turned to learning by doing, a movement led by John Dewey (1859-1952).

20th century

In a century marked by totalitarianism and the New York Stock Exchange Crash (1929), the school becomes the key institution in the construction of a democratic society. It is in this context that the international movement of activism emerged, which marked the history of education by placing the child at the center of the teaching and learning process.

It was argued that "doing" should precede "knowing". The child came to be seen as an active agent, who should not only absorb the content. Teaching, in turn, starts from the student's personal experience and from the concrete problems of the community, thus articulating the intellectual activity with the manual.

The history of education in Brazil Brazil Colony

During the colonial period (1530-1822), education was under the responsibility of religious orders, especially the Jesuits. They were expelled from Portugal and Brazil in 1759, by order of the Marquis of Pombal (1699-1782). The aristocrat carried out an educational reform in Portuguese and Brazilian lands, replacing the Jesuit Method, focused on learning Latin and catechizing, for one that addressed the natural sciences. He also made official the teaching profession, which was supposed to teach children to read, write and count, in addition to the so-called "humanities", distributed in grammar, Latin and Greek classes.

There was no specific qualification to act as a teacher, so the Portuguese Crown selected for the people who had some education, often priests. The first normal schools, aimed at training educators, were only established in 1835.

Imperial Brazil

With the Independence of Brazil and the promulgation of the Constitution of 1824, education should be free for all citizens. A law of October 15, 1827 determined the opening of schools of first letters in all cities and towns of the Empire. Each province was responsible for setting the educational rules in the territory.

In addition to the mutual method, during the Empire (1822-1889) educators used simultaneous and intuitive methods. In the first, the teacher passed the content to groups of students, separated according to the topic to be studied. The second used the five senses to promote learning.

first republic

After the Proclamation of the Republic (1889), two currents were established in the Brazilian educational environment. Positivism prioritized the disciplines of Exact Sciences to the detriment of the humanities, while Escolanovismo defended a public, free and secular school that placed the student as an active subject in the teaching and learning process.

The first school groups were founded between 1892 and 1896, bringing together the primary schools in the same space. Students were divided into grades according to age group. The pedagogical basis of this period is based on principles such as simplicity, progressivity, memorization and teacher authority.

new state

It was in the Vargas Era (1930-1945) that the Ministry of Education and Public Health was created, in addition to the promulgation of the Organic Laws of Education (1942), in an attempt to systematize education at a national level. At the same time, the first university course in Pedagogy in Brazil was opened at the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (PUC-Campinas), in 1939.

Military regime

The military regime (1964-1985) carried out a series of reforms and gave Brazilian education a more technical character. Law No. 5,692/1972 established the division of education into 1st and 2nd grades, which must be professionalised. In the same decade, the subjects of Social Studies and Moral and Civic Education (CME) were included in the curriculum.

redemocratization

Finally, in the 1990s and 2000s, important laws were enacted that regulate the functioning of education in Brazil until today. One of them was the Law of Directives and Bases of National Education (LDB), of 1996, which reiterated the municipalization of Elementary Education; made teacher training at a higher level mandatory; and put the

Early Childhood Education as the initial stage of Basic Education. The 1st and 2nd grades are now called Elementary and Middle Schools.

In the same period, Brazil was included in the International Student Assessment Program (Pisa) and the National High School Exam (Enem) was created. Other important policies created in the 1990s were the National Curriculum Parameters (PCN) and the National Curriculum Reference for Early Childhood Education (RCNEI).

The first National Education Plan (PNE) would come in 2001. Four years later, students in the 5th and 9th grades began to be evaluated in the Prova Brasil. In 2009, compulsory schooling was officially defined, from 4 to 17 years of age.

How will the pandemic enter the history of education?

The pandemic will likely be seen as a watershed moment in the history of education. It challenged the traditional classroom model by imposing remote and blended learning at all educational levels, from Kindergarten to Higher. New pedagogical practices had to be developed to stimulate learning in children who should spend hours sitting in front of a notebook. Another challenge was the socioeconomic inequality among students, who often did not have access to the internet and had to resort to printed activities and face-to-face pedagogical assistance. Therefore, to deal with the post-pandemic, teachers of all disciplines must invest in continuing education and seek postgraduate courses that enable them to create new pedagogical practices.

Let's talk a little about literature to better show the aesthetic use of written language in relation to literary art about its works of recognition and aesthetic value throughout the ages for everyone forever and I want to talk here about education and thank you all very much for this interpretation.

Greek Literature

First to appear in Europe, Greek literature laid, in the course of its evolution, the foundations of almost all literary genres. Assimilated by the Romans, the great Greek writers of antiquity, along with the Latin classics, came to be considered universal models, and from them, certainly, the entire Western literary tradition derives.

Distributed in three great periods - that of antiquity, the Byzantine and the modern - Greek literature approached, in theater and poetry, in philosophy and in the religious text, all the great myths and crucial themes of humanity. It served as a reference not only to universal literature but also to modern scientific and artistic activities and currents, such as cinema, psychoanalysis and education.

Antique

Ancient Greek literature is the one that has developed since the use of writing began to spread, around the 8th century BC A period of greatest importance for the history of Western letters, divided into archaic periods (until the end of the 6th century BC), classical (5th and 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic and Greco-Roman (from the 3rd century BC).

Archaic age. Even before using writing for literary purposes, the Greeks already made poetry to be sung or recited. Its subjects were myths, partly legendary, based on diffuse memory of historical events, plus a little folklore and early religious speculation. You

myths, however, were not linked to any religious dogma and, although many were gods or great mortal heroes, they were not authoritarian and could have their profile altered by a poet who wished to express new concepts.

Thus, early on, Greek thought began to progress, as poets re-elaborated their sources. The epics attributed to Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey belong to this initial stage, called the archaic epoch, which retell stories interspersed with myths from the Mycenaean period. The didactic poetry of Hesiod (c. 700 BC), probably after Homer's epics, although with different themes and treatment, continued the epic tradition.

The various types of Greek lyric poetry emerged in the archaic period among the poets of the Aegean and Ionia islands, in the

coast of Anatolia. Archilochus of Paros, 7th century BC, was the first Greek poet to use elegy in a more personal way. Its metrical shapes and patterns were imitated by a succession of Ionian poets. At the beginning of the 6th century, Alcaeus and Sappho created their poems in the Aeolian dialect of the island of Lesbos and were later adapted by Horace into Latin poetry. They were followed by Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, who also composed in the Ionic dialect. The choral lyric, with musical accompaniment, belonged to the Doric tradition.

Tragedy and comedy originated in Greece. It is believed that there were "tragic" choirs in Doric Greece around 600 BC. Also comedy originated in Doric Greece and developed in Attica.

Legal codes that emerged in the late 7th century were the first form of prose. There is no known prose author prior to Pherecydes (c. 550 BC) of Syros, who wrote about the beginning of the world. But the first considerable author, Hecataeus of Miletus, wrote about the mythical past and the geography of the Mediterranean and nearby lands. Aesop, a legendary character from the mid-sixth century, is credited with the authorship of fables with a moral sense copied by writers of later times.

Classic period. Almost all literary genres reached their peak in the classical period, with the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the comedy of Aristophanes and the choral lyric of Pindar. The classic was also a golden age for rhetoric and oratory, the study of which raised questions about truth and morality in argumentation and in this way, it was the object of study of the philosopher as well as the lawyer and the politician. Greek historical prose reached maturity in this period.

The works of Plato and Aristotle, dating from the fourth century, are the most important products of Greek culture in the intellectual history of the West. These thinkers laid the foundations of Western philosophy and determined the evolution of European thought over the centuries.

Hellenistic and Greco-Roman times. In Alexander the Great's immense empire, Macedonians and Greeks made up the ruling class, and so Greek became the language of administration, a new dialect based in part on Attic and called koine, or common language. Everywhere the city-state was in decline. Artistic creation passed to private sponsorship and, except for the Athenian comedy, the compositions were aimed at a small and select audience, appreciative of erudition and subtlety.

The Hellenistic period was from the end of the 4th century to the end of the 1st century BC For the next three centuries, until Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine empire, Greek writers were aware that they lived in a world of which Rome was the center.

Genres

Epic poetry. At the beginning of Greek literature there are two great epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Some sources for these poems are from the Mycenaean period, perhaps 1500 BC, but the written work, attributed to Homer, is dated to about the 8th century BC Iliad and Odyssey are early examples of an epic poem -- in antiquity it was a long narrative poem, in a noble style, celebrating heroic conquests.

Despite being the oldest European poems, Iliad and Odyssey cannot be considered, from any point of view, primitive. More than the beginning, they mark the highest point of this literary form. They were essentially orally transmitted poems, developed and augmented over an extended period of time, upon which several successive anonymous poets freely improvised. In the ancient world they occupied a special class among epic poems. In fact, remains of an epic cycle are preserved, with numerous poems that complement the history of the wars of Thebes and Troy and other myths.

Didactic poetry was not regarded by the Greeks as a different form from epic, but the world of the poet Hesiod, who lived in Boeotia around 700 BC, was completely different from Homer's. In addition to The Works and Days, which describes the life of a simple Boeotian farmer tormented by drought and the oppression of the aristocracy, he also left the poem Teogonia, which narrates the genealogy of the gods and myths associated with the creation of the universe, with a clear influence of Middle Eastern mythology.

lyrical poetry. The word "lyrical" encompasses many types of poems. Those sung by individuals or choirs accompanied by a lyre, or sometimes a flute, were called melics. Elegies -- in which the epic hexameter, or six-syllable line, alternated with a shorter line -- were associated with lamentation and accompanied by a flute.

But poems were also used for monodic, spoken and sung poetry. Iambic poems (of iambic lines, or metric units of four alternating long and short syllables), a versified form of satire, were generally not sung. The choral lyric, usually accompanied by lyre and flute, did not use the traditional verses or stanzas; his meter was created for each poem and never used again in the same way. In addition to Alcmaeon of Sparta and

Stesichorus, stand out in the genus Simonides of Ceos, Pindar and, already in the decline of the genus, Bacchylides (5th century BC).

Tragedy and comedy. In its two aspects - tragedy and comedy - the Greek theater reached its aesthetic fullness at that time. Their origins remain obscure, but it seems clear that both were taken from religious rituals in honor of the god Dionysus.

The main interest of Aeschylus, whose tragedies are usually grouped into trilogies, is not dramatic action, nor the composition of characters, but the subordination of human life to the fathomless designs of the gods. With Sophocles, his successor, tragedy reached even greater formal perfection. The central theme of his great works, such as Oedipus the King, Electra and Antigone, is the exaltation of the greatness of man who, although subjected to destiny and will of the gods, maintains moral integrity, and does his duty.

Euripides, a contemporary of the Sophists, belonged to a phase of questioning all traditional beliefs. Although he started from myth, like previous tragedians, his interest centered on the study of human passion - Medea, Hippolytus - and on the critique of conventional ideas about religion, politics and morals. After Euripides, who died in 406, tragedy ceased to be cultivated.

Parallel to tragedy, comedy developed, which was its counterpart. It emerged in the Doric cities, where the figure of Epicharmus stood out, but took shape in Athens, in the first half of the 5th century. In the initial period (ancient comedy) it was fundamentally social and political satire. Aristophanes, one of the greatest comic geniuses of universal literature, mocked, in works such as The Frogs and The Clouds, the political and intellectual figures of his time. The middle phase of comedy, in which Antiphanes and Alexis stood out, focused on satire and parody. In the new comedy, whose main representative was Menander, at the end of the 4th century, the main theme was domestic conflicts.

Prose. The first great historian was Herodotus of Halicarnassus, also a great geographer and anthropologist. Its central theme is the confrontation between Asia and Europe, which culminated in the Greco-Persian wars. No less important was Thucydides, who lived in the second half of the 5th century and wrote the History of the Peloponnesian War.

Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, completely excludes divine intervention in events in which men intervene. It is customary to consider him the true creator of history as a science, for his documental rigor, critical sense and narrative objectivity.

His work, which remained unfinished, was completed by Xenophon, who also wrote Anabasis, an account of the retreat of ten thousand Greeks, after the murder of their leaders by the Persians of Cyrus, from the vicinity of Babylon to the coast of the Black Sea. After these authors, the historical genre declined until it became little more than an exercise in rhetoric.

Rhetoric and oratory. In few societies the power of oratory has been more valued than in Greece. It was above all the emergence of democratic forms of government that encouraged the study and teaching of the art of persuasion.

Among the Greek orators of the 4th century, the following deserve particular attention: Isocrates, who distinguished himself by the care of style and defended a Panhellenic ideal that would put an end to the internal wars between the Greeks, and above all Demosthenes, the greatest of the Greek orators of antiquity. Very active in politics, Demosthenes personified the reaction of the old ideal of the independent polis in the face of the nascent Pan-Hellenism. After his death, with the decline of democracy, oratory went into decline.

Philosophical prose. Prose as a vehicle for philosophy began to be developed from the 6th century BC Early philosophers included Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Democritus and Heraclitus. Philosophical prose was the main literary achievement of the time, greatly influenced by Socrates (who has no written work) and his characteristic method of teaching, through questions and answers, which evolved into dialogue.

Socrates' most celebrated disciple was Plato, who began writing shortly after his master's death (399 BC) and, as a writer, gave unsurpassed form to a new literary genre, dialogue. His disciple Aristotle had a style admired in his time, but his works preserved

they are fundamentally didactic and without stylistic concern.

Byzantine literature

Byzantine literature can be defined, in a general way, as the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, both that produced in the territory of the Byzantine Empire and outside its borders.

By late antiquity, several classical Greek genres, such as theater and choral lyric poetry, had long since become obsolete, and all Greek literature somehow exhibited archaizing language and style, perpetuated by a conservative system of education. where rhetoric was the most important subject. The Greek doctors of the church, products of this education, shared the literary values of their pagan contemporaries. Consequently, the vast and dominant Christian literature of the 3rd to 6th centuries, which created a synthesis of Hellenic and Christian thought, was largely written in a language that had long been no longer spoken by all classes in their everyday life. The use of two very different forms of the same language for different purposes characterized Byzantine culture for a millennium. The relationship between the two forms, however, has changed over time.

The prestige of the classicizing literary language maintained its force until the end of the sixth century, and only a few popular stories from the lives of the saints and chronicles escaped its influence. In the two and a half centuries that followed, when the very existence of the Byzantine empire was threatened, urban life and education went into decline, and with them the use of classicizing language and style. With the political recovery of the 9th and 10th centuries, a literary renaissance began, in which a conscious attempt was made to recreate the Hellenic-Christian culture of the end of antiquity. The popular language was disregarded and the hagiography (biographies of saints) was rewritten in an archaizing language and style.

By the twelfth century, the Byzantines' self-reliance allowed them to develop new literary genres, including the fictional novel, in which adventure and love are the main themes, and satire, which eventually used quotations from spoken Greek. The period between the fourth crusade (1204) and the taking of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453)

saw a vigorous resurgence of classicizing literature -- as the Byzantines sought to assert their cultural superiority over the more militarily and economically powerful West -- and, at the same time, the beginning of a flourishing literature approaching vernacular Greek. . This vernacular literature, however, was limited to poetic novels, texts of popular devotion, and the like. All serious literature continued to use the prestigious archaizing language of learned tradition.

Didactic in tone, and often also in content, much of Byzantine literature was written for a limited group of educated readers, capable of understanding classical and biblical allusions and appreciating figures of speech. Some Byzantine genres would not be considered of literary interest today. On the contrary, they seem to belong to the field of technical literature, as is the case with the voluminous texts of the doctors of the church, such as Athanasius, Gregory Nazianzen, John Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria and Maximus the Confessor.

Non-liturgical poetry. Byzantine poetry continued to be written in classical meter and style. But the sense of adequacy of form to content was lost. An example of this is the transitional work of Nonos of Panopolis, a fifth-century Greek of Egyptian origin, who converted to Christianity. His long poem Dionysiaká (The Dionysiacs) was composed in Homeric language and meter, but it is much more accepted as a long panegyric on Dionysus than an epic. Nonos' contemporaries left short narrative poems in Homeric verse, with mythological content.

A clergyman, George the Pisidian, wrote long narrative poems about the wars of Emperor Heraclius (610-641), as well as a poem about the six days of the creation of the world, in iambic trimeters (12-syllable lines, initially three feet long). iambics, each with a short syllable followed by a long one). Theodosius followed his example in the epic about the retaking of Crete from the Arabs in the tenth century.

The 12-syllable verse became the most widely used meter in the mid and late Byzantine Empire and served as a vehicle for narratives, epigrams, romances, satire, and religious and moral instructions. From the 11th century it found a rival in the 15-syllable verse -- used by the Paphlagonian monk Simeon in his mystical hymns -- which became a vehicle for court poetry in the 12th century.

The new form was also used by Metropolitan Konstantinos Manasses in his chronicle of the world and by an anonymous writer of the 13th-century epic novel Digenis Akritas.

In this meter, which did not follow classical models, the first vernacular poems were written, as well as the romance Callimachus and Chrysorroe, among others that are among the most significant works of genuine fiction in Byzantine literature. Many of these poems were adaptations or imitations of Western medieval models. This opening to the Latin West was new. But even when they were based

by Western standards, Byzantine poems differed in tone and expression from their models.

Byzantine poetry is unoriginal, tiresome and boring. But some poets reveal great inspiration, such as João Geometres (10th century) and João Mauropo (11th century), or extraordinary technical brilliance, such as Teodoro Pródomo (12th century) and Manuel II Palaiologos (14th century). The ability to write verse was widespread in literate Byzantine society, and poetry was very much appreciated.

liturgical poetry. From the very beginning, song -- and small rhythmic stanzas (troparia) in particular -- was part of the church's liturgy. Poems in classical meter and style have been created by Christian writers since Clement of

Alexandria and Gregory Nazianzen. But the pagan associations of genres, as well as the difficulties of meter, made them unacceptable for general liturgical use.

In the sixth century, elaborate rhythmic poems (kontakia) replaced the simpler troparia. The new form owed much to Syriac liturgical poetry. The kontakion was a series of up to 22 stanzas, all built to the same rhythmic pattern and ending with a short chorus. In content, it was a narrative homily about a biblical event or episode in the life of a saint. It almost always had a strong dramatic element. Kontakia's greatest composer was Romanos Melodos (early 6th century), a Syrian probably of Jewish In the late 7th century, the kontakion was replaced by a longer liturgical poem, the kanon, which consisted of eight or nine odes, each with many stanzas and a different rhythm and melodic form. The kanon was a hymn of praise rather than a homily. The most notable kanone composers were Andreas de Crete, João Damasceno, Theodoros Studita, Josephos Hymnógraphos and João Mauropo. The original music of the kontakia and kanones has been lost.

Historiography. Up until the early 7th century a number of historians recounted the events of their own time in a classicizing style, with fictitious speech and descriptive excerpts from the environment. Procopius of Caesarea and other historians who followed picked up where they left off.

predecessors. Subsequently, this vein remained virtually extinct for over 250 years.

The revival of trust in culture and political power in the late ninth century saw the resurgence of classicizing history, with an interest in the human character -- Plutarch was often the model and in the causes of events. The group of historians collectively known as the "Continuers of Theophanes" have recorded, not without partiality, the origin and early days of the Macedonian dynasty. From then until the end of the fourteenth century there was not a single generation without its historian. The most notable were Simeon of Paphlagonia (10th century); Miguel Pselo (11th century); Anna Komnena (12th century); Georgios Akropolita (century XIII); and Nikephoros Gregoras and Emperor Johannes Kantakouzenos (14th century).

The last days of the Byzantine empire were retold from various points of view by George Sphrantzes, the writer known simply as Doukas (who was a member of the ancient Byzantine imperial house of the same name), Laonicus Chalcocondyles, and Michael Critobulus in the second half of the 15th century.

Another kind of interest in the past was satisfied by the chronicles of the world. Often naively theological in their explanation of causes, simplistic in their description of characters, and popular in language, they helped the common Byzantine to locate himself in a scheme of world history that was also a history of salvation. The Chronographia of John Malalas in the 6th century and the Chronicon of Pascal (Chronicon Paschale) in the 8th century were succeeded by those of Theophanes the Confessor at the beginning of the 9th century and George the Icicle at the end of the 9th century. Such chronicles continued to be written in the following centuries, sometimes with critical and literary pretensions, as in John Zonaras, or in a romanticized verse form, as in Konstantinos Manasses.

The importance that the Byzantine rulers attached to history is evidenced in the vast historical encyclopedia compiled by order of Constantine VII (913-959), in 53 volumes, of which only a few fragments remain.

Rhetoric.

Although there was no opportunity for forensic oratory or politics in the Byzantine world, a taste for rhetoric and well-structured language, for the choice and use of figures of speech and thought, remained. From the tenth century onwards a vast body of eulogies, funeral orations, inaugural lectures, memorial and welcome speeches, victory celebrations and assorted panegyrics survives. This profusion of elaborate rhetoric played an important role in shaping and controlling public opinion in closed and influential circles, and occasionally served as a vehicle for genuinely political controversy.

modern greek literature

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greek literary production continued almost exclusively in the areas of the Greek world under Venetian rule. Thus, Cyprus, until it was captured by the Turks in 1571, produced literary works in the local dialect, including the local chronicle, written by Leóntius Machairás. In Crete, under Venetian rule until 1669, there was an important literary flowering, written in Cretan dialect. Tragedies, comedies, a pastoral tragicomedy and a religious play based on Italian models were written. Georgios Chortatsis was the most important writer. In the first half of the 17th century, Vitséntsos Kornáros wrote his narrative poem Erotókritos.

In the Greek territory dominated by the Ottomans, popular songs pleased the population and became practically the only form of literary expression. To As the end of the 18th century approached, however, several intellectuals, under the influence of European ideas, sought to raise the level of Greek education and culture and laid the foundations of a movement in favor of

independence. Participants in this "Greek Enlightenment" also addressed the problem of language, and each promoted a different form of Greek to be used in education. The leading intellectual of the early 19th century was the classical scholar Adamantios Koraïs, who in texts on Greek language and education advocated a "corrected" modern Greek on the basis of the ancient rules.

Post-independence period. The great renaissance of Greek literature took place after independence, at the end of the 1820s. Throughout the 19th century, there was a discussion about which of the modalities should be adopted in the literary language:

the katharevus, a cultured and deliberately archaic variety; or the demotic, based on the spoken language. At first, the katharevusa was more used, but at the end of the century the demotic triumphed in poetry, adopted in all literary genres from the beginning of the following century.

The Greek literature of the 19th century was under the sign of romanticism, although in recent decades it has followed new trends. There were two of the most important schools of poetry: the Athenian and the Ionic. The poets of the first, whose founder was the leader Alexandros Soútsos, distinguished themselves by their extreme patriotic feeling and exacerbated romanticism. In addition to Soútsos and his brother Panayótis, who introduced the novel to Greece, the figures

most important were Aléxandros Rízos Rangavís, in narrative and lyrical poetry, theater and romance; Emmanuel Roídis, author of the satirical novel I Pápissa Ioánna (1866; A papisa Joana), a pastiche of the historical novel; and Pávlos Kalligás and Dimítrios Vikélas, who dealt with contemporary themes.

The most representative of the Ionian school was Dhionísios Solomós, a poet of great philosophical depth and precursor of the group of Athenian poets who, from 1880, reacted against the exaggerations of romanticism and the formalism of Katharevusa.

The vulgarist movement defended Demotic as the most appropriate language for literary creation. Antónios Mátesis wrote a historical drama that was the first prose work in demotic. Aristoteles Valaoritis continued the Ionian tradition with long patriotic poems inspired by the Greek national wars.

The vulgarist movement in literature, whose main ideologue was Yánnis Psicháris (Jean Psichari), inspired poets to enrich the Greek folk tradition with external influences. Within this trend, Kostís Palamás dominated the literary scene for several decades, with a vast production of essays and articles, and published his best poetry between 1900 and 1910. Angelos Sikelianós followed the same trend in his lyrical poetry of a profoundly mystical nature.

In prose, the folkloric cult strengthened the development of the tale, initially written in Katharevusa, but the demotic gradually occupied more space from the 1990s onwards.

1890. These tales, like the novels of the period, depicted scenes of traditional rural life, partly idealized, partly viewed critically by their authors.

Georgios Vizyenós was the first Greek short story writer, and the most famous and prolific in the genre was Aléxandros Papadiamándis. The novel O zitiános (1896; The beggar), by Andréas Karkavítsas, satirizes the economic and cultural misery of the rural population. From 1910 onwards, this critical view was reflected in the prose of Konstantinos Chatzópoulos and Konstantinos Theotókis. At the same time, Grigórios Xenópoulos wrote urban novels and worked especially in theater, a genre that received a substantial boost from the vulgarist movement.

The loss of Anatolia in 1922, when the expansionist urges of Greece in Turkey were finally frustrated, brought about a radical change in the orientation of Greek literature. Before committing suicide, Kóstas Kariotákis wrote sarcastic poems about the gap between the old ideals and the new reality.

The backlash against the defeatism of 1922 came with the 1930s generation, a group of writers who reinvigorated Greek literature. They abandoned the old poetic forms and produced ambitious novels intended to embody the spirit of the age. The poets Georgios Seféris, who also wrote essays, and Odysseus Elytis won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. Yánnis Rítsos was another important poet of the time.

The 1930s generation produced remarkable novels. Among them, I zoí en tafo (1930; Life in the tomb), an account of life in the trenches of the first world war written by Stratis Myrivílis; Argo (1933-1936), a two-volume work by Yórgas Theotokás, about a group of students during the turbulent 1920s; and Eroica (1937), by Kosmás Polítis, which deals with the impact of love and death on a group of students.

After World War II, prose was dominated by novels about the experiences of the Greeks during the eight years of the war (1941-1949). Iánnis Berátis wrote To Platy Potami (1946; The wide river) and, between 1960 and 1965, Stratís Tsírkas published a trilogy in which he masterfully recreated the atmosphere of the Middle East in World War II. In the tale, Dimítris Chatzís ironically portrayed the period before and during the conflict.

The most famous novelist of the period was the Cretan Níkos Kazantzákis, a survivor of an earlier generation. In a series of novels that began with Víos ke politía tou Aléxi Zorbá (1946; Zorba the Greek) and continued with his masterpiece O Christos xanastavronete (1954; The Crucified Christ), he embodied a synthesis of the ideas of various philosophies and religions in characters who face immense problems, such as the existence of God and the purpose of human life. Before that, Kazantzákis had already published Odesia (1938; Odyssey), an epic poem of 33,333 lines that tells the story of a modern, dissatisfied Odysseus in search of a higher life. Pandelís Prevelákis published several philosophical novels set in his native Crete, the most successful of which was O ílios tou thanátou (1959; The Sun of Death), which shows a boy who learns to deal with death.

During the 1960s, prose writers attempted to explore the historical factors that underlie the social and political situation. In the novel To trito stefáni (1962; The Third Marriage), by Kóstas Tachtsís, the female narrator tells the story of her life and exposes the oppressive nature of the Greek family. The short, partly fictional, partly autobiographical prose by Yórgos Ioánnou presents a vivid portrait of Thessaloniki and Athens between the 1930s and 1980s.

No poet stands out individually in the post-war generations in Greece, but Tákis Sinópoulos, Míltos Sachtouris and Manólis Anagnostákis, all marked by their experience in the war during the 1940s, are among the most respected.

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By: Roberto Barros